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E 

SI 

INDIAN  NOTES  -^^ 

AND  MONOGRAPHS      fie,  S*? 

Edited  by  F.  W.  Hodge 


No.    §jmuM,I    39 


A  SERIES  OF  PUBLICA- 
TIONS RELATING  TO  THE 
AMERICAN     ABORIGINES 


SKELETAL  REMAINS 
1 '  FROM 

SANTA  BARBARA,  CALIFORNIA 

I 
CRANIOLOGY 

By 

BRUNO  OETTEKING 

1 1 1 


JEW  YORK  k 

MUSEUM  OF  THE   AMERICAN  INDIAN 

HEYE   FOUNDATION 

1925 


ate 


SKELETAL  REMAINS 

FROM 

SANTA  BARBARA, 

CALIFORNIA 


I 
CRANIOLOGY 


BY 

BRUNO  OETTEKING 


ERRATA 

Page    34,  fourth  line,  for  mastoid,  read  -parietal. 

"  34,  twentieth  and  twenty-second  lines,  for 
mastoidea,  read  parietalis. 

"  35,  fig.  3,  second  line  of  legend,  for  mastoidea, 
read  parietales. 

ct  12.9,  eighth  line,  for  postcoronoideum,  read 
-postcoronoidea. 

"     161,  sixth  line  from  bottom,  omit  ^4. 

"  161,  between  fifth  and  sixth  lines  from  bot- 
tom, insert  parietalis,  34,  3$. 


Norma  basilaris 69 

Norma  frontalis 82 

Norma  occipitalis 121 

Lower  jaw 124 

Teeth 146 

Conclusion 148 

Literature 154 

Index 159 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Illustrations 6 

Foreword 9 

State  of  preservation  and  classification 11 

The  problem  and  the  plan  of  its  investigation 15 

Cranial  size  (capacity;  horizontal  circumference;  module) .  15 

Intracranial  and  cranio-facial  correlations 18 

Norma  verticalis ....    21 

Norma  lateralis 31 

Norma  basilaris 69 

Norma  frontalis 82 

Norma  occipitalis 121 

Lower  jaw 124 

Teeth 146 

Conclusion 148 

Literature 154 

Index 159 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Plates 

I.  System  of  sagittal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  B  (cf ) 
II.  System  of  sagittal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  C  ( 9 ) 

III.  System  of  sagittal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  E  (cf ) 

IV.  System  of  frontal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  B  (cf ) 
V.  System  of  frontal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  C  ( 9 ) 

VI.  System  of  frontal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  E  (cf ) 
VII.  System  of  horizontal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  B  (cf ) 
VIII.  System  of  horizontal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  C 
(9) 
IX.  System  of  horizontal  cranial  tracings  of  skull  E  (cf ) 
X.  Median-sagittal   tracing   of   Santa   Barbara    skull 
B  (cf )  in  ear-eye  orientation  with  angles  marked 
XL  Median-sagittal  tracing  of  Santa  Barbara  skull  C 
(  9  )  in  ear-eye  orientation  with  angles  marked 
XII.  Median-sagittal  tracing  of  Santa  Barbara  skull  E 
( cf )  in  ear-eye  orientation  with  angles  marked 

XIII.  Superposition  of  median-sagittal  outlines 

XIV.  Superposition  of  median-sagittal  outlines 
XV.  Norma  frontalis  (facialis)  of  skull  B  (cf ) 

XVI.  Norma  frontalis  (facialis)  of  skull  C  (  9  ) 

XVII.  Norma  frontalis  (facialis)  of  skull  E  (cf ) 

XVIII.  Norma  lateralis  of  skull  B  (cf ) 

XIX.  Norma  lateralis  of  skull  C  (  9  ) 

XX.  Norma  lateralis  of  skull  E  (cf) 

XXL  Norma  verticalis  of  skull  B  (cf ) 

XXII.  Norma  verticalis  of  skull  C  (  9  ) 

XXIII.  Norma  verticalis  of  skull  E  (cf ) 

XXIV.  Norma  basilaris  of  skull  B  (cf ) 
XXV.  Norma  basilaris  of  skull  C  (  9 ) 

XXVI.  Norma  basilaris  of  skull  E  (cf ) 

XXVII.  Norma  occipitalis  of  skull  B  (cf ) 

XXVIII.  Norma  occipitalis  of  skull  C  (  9  ) 

XXIX.  Norma  occipitalis  of  skull  E  (cf) 

XXX.  Norma  lateralis  of  calotte  D  (cf ) 

XXXI.  Norma  verticalis  of  calotte  D  (cf ) 

XXXII.  Norma  occipitalis  of  calotte  D  (cf ) 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Figures 

1.  Coronal  angle  of  partes  bregmaticse  of  coronal  sutures 

in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls 25 

2.  Diversity  of  the  coronal  suture  in  skulls  from  San 

Miguel  Island,  California 27 

3.  Right  and  left  squama  temporalis  of  Santa  Barbara  B 

(tf1) _..: _ 35 

4.  Crista  supramastoidea  projecting  upon  parietal  bone .     36 

5.  Tracings  of  fossa  temporalis  of  skull  B  (cT)  in  ear-eye 

orientation 38 

6.  Tracings  of  fossa  temporalis  of  skull  C  (  9  )  in  ear-eye 

orientation 38 

7.  Tracings  of  fossa  temporalis  of  skull  E  (c?)  in  ear-eye 

orientation 39 

8.  Anatomical    configuration    and    landmarks  of  fossa 
temporalis 40 

Median-sagittal  frontal  outlines  in  superposition ....  52 

Postbregmatic  elevation 56 

Schematic  representation  of  angles  at  the  cranial  base .  64 
Canalis  hypoglossi  in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls,  show- 
ing different  forms  of  bipartition 73 

13.  Merging  of  the  left  foramen  spinosum  and  canalis 

musculotubarius  in  skull  C  (  9  ) 76 

14.  Variation  in  the  shape  of  the  spina  nasalis  posterior  of 

the  Santa  Barbara  skulls 77 

15.  Anomalous  palatine  perforations  in  skull  C  (  9  ) 78 

16.  Superposition  of  left  frontal  processus  zygomatici  in 

frontal  projection 85 

17.  Pars  nasalis  of  frontal  bone  in  frontal  projection  and 

ear-eye  orientation  with  nasion  and  infranasion 

points  in  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens 87 

18.  Scheme  of  orbital  declinations  of  skull  B  (cf ) 94 

19.  Scheme  of  orbital  declinations  of  skull  C  (  9  ) 95 

20.  Scheme  of  orbital  declinations  of  skull  E  (c?1) 96 

21.  Midorbital  outlines  of  nasal  bones  in  cranial  ear-eye 

orientation 99 

22.  Vertical  outlines  of  the  nasal  bones  and  angles  of  the 

nasal  roof 100 

23.  Two  aspects  of  crista  infrazygomatica 109 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Page 

24.  Midfacial  horizontal  outlines  (comparative) 116 

25.  Basal  and  median-sagittal  outlines  of  chin  region 

in  the  Santa  Barbara  mandibles  in  alveolar  orienta- 
tion     127 

26.  Lateral  outlines  in  orthogonal  projection  and  alveolar 

orientation  of  the  Santa  Barbara  mandibles 133 

27.  Superposition  of  mandibular  rami  in  lateral  projec- 

tion and  alveolar  orientation 141 


FOREWORD 


LIKE  many  other  finds  of  supposed  antiquity 
in  America,  the  much  noted  skeletal  remains 
from  Santa  Barbara,  California,  have  passed 
through  the  usual  stages  of  fantastic  misrepre- 
sentation in  the  daily  press  to  sober  evaluation  by  scien- 
tific judgment.  The  bones  were  found  in  October,  1923, 
by  Mr.  J.  P.  Harrington  of  the  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  Washington,  D.  C,  in  the  course  of  work 
conducted  jointly  with  the  Museum  of  the  American 
Indian,  Heye  Foundation,  in  connection  with  the 
exploration  of  the  Burton  Mound  at  Santa  Barbara, 
which  was  made  possible  by  the  generosity  of  Mrs. 
Thea  Heye.  The  exploration  was  conducted  under  the 
immediate  auspices  of  the  Museum,  by  an  agreement 
whereby  the  remains  came  to  its  Department  of  Physi- 
cal Anthropology,  where  their  methodical  study  was 
undertaken.  Its  procedures,  so  far  as  the  craniology  is 
concerned,  are  set  forth  in  the  following  pages,  while 
the  results,  remarks  on  the  geological  conditions  and 
otherwise,  and  the  discussion  of  the  morphological  sig- 
nificance of  the  find,  are  treated  in  the  final  chapter. 

A  preliminary  note  by  the  author  on  the  Santa  Barbara 
skeletal  remains  appeared  in  Indian  Notes,  1924,  v.  I, 
pp.  76-83,  Museum  of  the  American  Indian,  Heye 
Foundation.  He  also  reported  on  the  find  at  the  Ninety- 
second  Meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  held  at  Toronto  in  August, 
1924. 

Bruno  Oetteking 


SKELETAL  REMAINS  FROM  SANTA 
BARBARA,  CALIFORNIA 

I.  CRANIOLOGY 

By  Bruno  Oetteking 

state  op  preservation  and  classification 


THE  skeletal  remains  from  Santa  Barbara  as 
they  were  received  during  the  month  of  Feb- 
ruary, 1924,  at  the  Department  of  Physical 
Anthropology  of  the  Museum,  consist  of  three 
lots,  named  A,  B,  and  C.  The  bones  were  heavy  from 
the  adhering  soil,  and  incrusted  with  earth  and  ashes. 
After  cleaning  they  regained  their  original  color,  which 
is  dirty  brownish  for  all  the  B  items,  and  a  lighter  but 
uneven  brownish  for  C.  The  fragments  of  A  had  ab- 
sorbed ashes  and  remained  smoke-blackened  even  after 
cleaning.  The  viscous  consistency  of  the  incrustation 
seemed  to  be  due  to  a  hardened  and  perhaps  a  fatty  sub- 
stance; however,  no  attempt  was  made  to  analyze  it. 
During  the  summer  of  1924  two  additional  specimens 
from  the  same  site  were  acquired  by  Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge, 
then  traveling  in  California,  and  sent  by  him  to  the 
Museum.  They  bore  similar  traces  of  adhering  earthy 
material  and  were  listed  with  the  others  as  D  and  E, 
and  the  results  of  their  examination  are  incorporated 
with  those  of  the  primary  finds. 

It  deserves  special  mention  that  none  of  the  skulls 

11 


12  SANTA    BARBARA 

had  been  submitted  to  intentional  deformation,  in  which 
respect  they  conform  to  the  general  status  of  crania 
from  southern  California.  Only  skull  E  is  slightly 
deformed,  as  a  result  of  unintentional  pressure,  con- 
cerning which  mention  is  made  later  (pages  14,  22,  32). 

In  general  the  state  of  preservation  is  very  good, 
except  that  of  A,  which,  as  already  mentioned,  consists 
of  a  number  of  fragments,  and  D  which  represents  a 
skull  cap  or  calotte  only.  The  external  compacta  of  all 
the  parts  belonging  to  B  is  so  little  impaired  that  it 
retains  its  glossy  appearance.  The  same  is  true  of  D 
and  partly  of  E.  In  the  latter  and  in  C  the  compacta  is 
less  smooth  and  is  slightly  injured  in  places  by  the 
chemical  action  of  the  soil  and  perhaps  by  root  erosion, 
without,  however,  being  scaly  or  calcined.  Minor 
defects  in  the  skulls  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  parts  affected  in  the  detailed  list  below. 

Specimens  B,  D,  and  E  were  quite  probably  males  of 
adult  age  between  40  and  45  years.  All  the  teeth, 
except  the  third  lower  molars  of  E,  are  erupted  and  worn 
in  the  way  usual  with  North  American  Indians.  All 
the  sutures  are  open.  The  same  applies  to  specimen  C, 
quite  probably  a  female.  The  fragments  of  A  are 
doubtless  those  of  a  male.  Frequent  mention  will  be 
made  of  them  in  comparison.  The  five  specimens  are 
referred  to  in  the  text  as  either  A,  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  or  the 
Santa  Barbara  specimens,  or  the  males  (B,  D,  E)  and 
the  female  (C),  and  in  the  tables  as:  A  (cf),  B  (cf); 
(D  tf),E  (c?),andC  (9). 

The  Santa  Barbara  cranial  remains,  then,  comprise 
the  following  items: 


CRANIOLOGY  13 

A,  cranial  fragments  of  an  adult  male: 

a.  frontal  bone,    with    adhering   portions    of   right 

parietal  and  nasal  bones,  and  portion  of  right 
ala  magna. 

b.  right  temporal  bone,  with  incomplete  squama. 

c.  right  zygomatic  and  maxillary  bones,  with  adher- 

ing portions  of  right  palatine  bone,  and  of  the 
palatine  and  alveolar  processes  of  the  left 
maxillary,  and  the  horizontal  process  of  the 
left  palatine  bone. 

d.  right  condyle  of  lower  jaw. 

Teeth : 

8  7  6  5  4  3  2  1   I  1  x  3  x  x  x  x  x1 


B,  cranium  of  an  adult  male: 

right  lacrimal  bone  missing,  left  one  fragmentary. 

Teeth: 

x7654x2x|l234567x 


S765432x|l23xx67S 

C,  cranium  of  an  adult  female: 

coronal  and  left  spheno-parietal  sutures,  slightly 
rifted  after  cleaning,  were  rejoined;  as  also 
were  cracked  portions  of  the  occipital  bone 
posteriorly  of  the  foramen  magnum;  roofs  of 
both  orbits  and  nasal  bones  slightly  defective; 

1  A  cross  (x)  indicates  loss  of  teeth,  a  dash  ( — )  teeth  not 
erupted,  while  numbers  in  parentheses  refer  to  defectiveness. 
The  latter  is  indicated  in  the  same  way  in  other  bones. 


14  SANTA    BARBARA 

anterior  walls  of  alveoli  for  both  upper  lateral 
incisors  and  both  left  lower  incisors  open,  in 
the  latter  apparently  by  some  pathological 
process. 

Teeth: 

876543211  x  2345678 


8765432l|  12345678 

D,  skull  cap  of  an  adult  male: 

with  adhering  nasal  bones,  the  upper  extreme  end 
of  the  left  ala  magna,  and  the  interparietal 
portion  of  the  occipital  bone;  the  squamosal 
margin  of  the  right  parietal  bone  is  slightly 
defective. 

E,  cranium  of  an  adult  male: 

brain  case  slightly  depressed  on  right  side,  caused 
perhaps  by  cradle-board  pressure1  or  by  carry- 
ing the  infant  on  its  mother's  back;  posterior 
border  of  foramen  magnum  slightly  defective, 
also  right  orbital  roof  and  both  laminae 
papyraceae. 

Teeth: 

876x432  1  I  12345678 


-765432  x|lx34567- 

1  On  this  particular  form  of  plagiocephaly,  Boas  (1889,  365) 
remarks:  "It  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  in  the  majority  of 
cases  the  left  side  of  the  head  is  more  prominent  than  the 
right  side.  Presumably  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  child 
mostly  lies  on  his  right  side  when  in  his  cradle." 


CRANIOLOGY  15 

THE   PROBLEM   AND   THE   PLAN   OF   ITS   INVESTIGATION 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  on  first  examination 
the  skeletal  material  from  Santa  Barbara  did  not  appear 
to  present  any  extraordinary  features  from  the  morpho- 
logical angle  of  observation,  its  methodical  investigation 
seemed  to  be  commensurate  with  the  importance 
attached  to  the  find.  This  was  done  in  such  a  way  that 
in  the  five  cranial  aspects  or  norma?  the  descriptive  and 
metrical  features  were  subjected  to  a  careful  individual 
and  comparative  study.  It  is  by  such  procedure  that 
the  significance  of  a  given  specimen  might  be  ascertained. 
Furthermore,  it  is  only  by  exhaustive  investigation  that 
the  gradually  multiplying  American  finds  will  receive 
the  full  scientific  treatment  due  them. 

The  investigations  were  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  a 
modern  instrumentarium,  particularly  with  regard  to 
the  drawing  of  outlines,  superimposing  these,  and  the 
ascertaining  of  angular  relations.  In  most  of  the  cases 
the  technique  is  that  prescribed  by  Rud.  Martin  (1914). 

cranial  size  (capacity;  horizontal  circumference; 

module) 

In  order  to  afford  a  conception  of  the  cranial  size  in 
general,  the  three  quantities  mentioned  in  the  heading 
were  studied  and  their  metrical  expressions  are  listed 
in  the  subjoined  table.  On  the  basis  of  the  classification 
of  the  cubic  capacity  of  the  skull  as  established  by  Fr. 
and  P.  Sarasin,  our  three  skulls  are  euencephalic.  The 
only  pronounced  difference  is  to  be  noted  between  the 
female  and  the  males.     Its  capacity  of  1158  ccm.  places 


16 


SANTA    BARBARA 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (<?) 

C   (9) 

E   (cf) 

North  Pacific  Coast 
(Undef  ormed ) 

Averages< 


Eskimo,  Southampton  Island'1 

(c? 
Averages<  g  ' 

Chinesef 


Averages  <  g 


CRANIAL  SIZE 


Capacity 


1379 
1158 
1338 


1349.5 
1243.8 

1563 
1458 

1456 

1380 


Horizontal 
circum- 
ference 

mm. 


495 

478 

482 


516.4 

484.5 

524 
510 

507.4 
492.6 


Module: 
L+Br+H 


149.7 
141.0 
145.3 


150.2 
145.6 

156.5 
152.0 

152.7 
147.5 


*  Hrdlicka  1910. 
t  Haberer  1902. 

the  female  skull  near  the  lower  limit  of  euencephaly 
and  toward  the  oligencephalic  class.  The  Santa 
Barbara  skulls  are  seen  to  be  fairly  in  line  with  the  male 
and  female  averages  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast.  They 
are  exceeded  only  slightly  by  the  Chinese,  who  have 
just  aristencephalic  averages,  while  the  Eskimo  of  the 
same  column  are  well  advanced  in  aristencephaly,  with 
a  male  average  of  1563  ccm.  and  a  female  one  of  1458 
ccm. 

Similarly  expressive  are  the  cranial  modules  accord- 
length    +   height   +   breadth 


ing  to  the  formula 


The 


CRANIOLOGY  17 

Santa  Barbara  modules  fall  short  of  all  the  averages 
contained  in  the  third  column  of  our  table,  which  differ 
among  themselves  proportionally  in  the  same  way  as 
the  cubic  capacities.  Consulting  Hrdlicka's  (1916,  118) 
table  of  cranial  modules  of  Eastern  Indians,  which  con- 
tains male  averages  of  152.2-160.4  mm.,  and  female 
averages  of  146.4-150.0  mm.,1  it  is  seen  that  of  our  own 
averages  the  male  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast  does  not 
reach  even  the  lowest  male  average  of  that  table;  that  in 
the  Chinese  it  is  level  with  it,  and  only  in  the  Eskimo 
does  it  occupy  about  the  middle  of  Hrdlicka's  range. 
Similar  conditions  obtain  among  the  female  averages, 
where,  however,  the  Eskimo  average  of  152.0  mm. 
exceeds  the  highest  Eastern  Indian  average  of  150.0 
mm.  The  rather  low  position  of  our  own  crania  is 
furthermore  confirmed  by  the  average  values  of  our 
collection  from  San  Miguel  island,  where  the  males 
yielded  148.0  mm.  and  the  females  142.3  mm.  On  the 
whole  it  will  be  realized  that  the  cranial  size  of  the 
Eastern  Indians,  as  expressed  by  the  cranial  module, 
noticeably  exceeds  that  of  the  Western,  at  least  those 
listed  in  our  table,  while  the  Chinese  enter  the  range  at 
its  lowest  station  and  the  Eskimo  maintain  a  medial 
one. 

The  horizontal  circumference  also  listed  in  our  table 
brings  out  in  a  similar  way  the  differences  of  cranial 
size  as  expressed  by  the  other  two  indications.  In  the 
physiological  range  of  that  measurement,  extending  from 
454-578  mm.  {Martin  1914,  654),  they  fall  quite  low. 

1  Hrdlicka  designates  centimeters;  e.g.,  15.22  cm. 


18 


SANTA   BARBARA 


They  range  likewise  considerably  below  the  averages 
which  the  same  author  quotes  for  Europeans,  namely, 
550  mm.  for  males  and  520  mm.  for  females.  The 
smaller  size  of  the  latter  results  naturally  in  the  smaller 
values  for  all  the  quantitative  expressions  listed  here. 

INTRACRANIAL  AND   CRANIOFACIAL   CORRELATIONS 

More  recent  craniological  research  has  pointed  to 
certain  cranio-facial  and  intracranial  correlations  which 
may  also  briefly  be  referred  to  in  our  specimens.  It  was 
Falkenburger  (1913)  who,  following  up  KlaatscJfs  (1909) 
discovery  of  the  " central  angle,"  discovered  on  his  part 
the  "cranio-facial"  angle  and  the  parallelism  between 


INTRACRANIAL  AND  CRANIO-FACIAL 
CORRELATIONS 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

Angle 

Angular  relations 
between  basion- 

Central 

Cranio- 
facial 

nasion  and 

bregma-lambda 

lines 

Santa  Barbara 

B    (c?) 

92° 
87° 
95° 

91.7° 
(88-97) 
90.4° 
(90-93) 
90° 
90° 

87° 
92° 

85° 

89.0° 
(86-92) 
88.1° 
(86-91) 
90° 
92° 

-3° 

C   (9  ) 

+2° 

E   (c?) 

-15° 

Haida 

( cr 

Averages<  ~ 

+2.9° 

(-4  to  +11) 

+0.8° 

Australian  "K72"* 

European! 

(-5  to  +7) 
-8° 
-4° 

*Klaatsch  1909,  18. 

f  Swabian;  Am.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  4555. 


CRANIOLOGY  19 

the  cranial  base  (basion-nasion)  line  and  the  bregma- 
lambda  chord.  There  are  a  number  of  other  correla- 
tions, like  the  parallelism  of  the  alveolar  plane  lines 
with  the  glabella-lambda  plane  as  pointed  out  by 
Klaatsch,  but  only  the  aforementioned  correlations  will  be 
discussed  here.  These  are  listed  in  the  table  on  page  18. 
The  "central  angle"  is  the  angle  which  Klaatsch 
(1909)  described  as  a  rectangular  correlation  between 
the  basion-bregma  and  glabella-lambda  lines,  and  after 
the  reinstitution  of  the  latter  which  was  Hamy's  line 
of  cranial  orientation.  This  angle,  Z  glabella-inter- 
section-bregma  of  pis.  x-xn,  oscillates  around  90°. 
Our  Santa  Barbara  skulls  have  angles  of  92°  in  B,  87° 
in  C,  and  95°  in  E.  This  deficiency  in  C  is  probably  due 
to  the  greater  declination  of  the  cranial  base  line,  as 
well  as  to  the  more  anterior  position  of  the  bregma. 
The  three  angles  are  illustrative  of  the  variation  under 
which  they  come  about  and  which  in  the  Haida  series  of 
our  table  extends  from  88°  to  97°,  yielding  averages  of 
91.7°  in  the  males  and  90.4°  in  the  females.  Both 
Klaatsch' s  Australian  and  the  European  of  our  table 
represent  at  90°  the  ideal  size  of  the  "central  angle." 
On  the  other  hand,  Falkenburger's  assertion  and  demon- 
stration of  the  recurrence,  in  deformed  Peruvian  skulls, 
of  the  correlative  conditions  as  encountered  in  the  normal 
ones,  does  not  hold  true,  for  instance,  for  the  strongly 
deformed  Chinook,  whose  "central  angles"  average  99.8° 
in  the  males  and  99.2°  in  the  females. 

The  cranio-facial  angle  is  formed  by  the  intersection 
of  the  nasion-basion  and  prosthion-bregma  lines,  i.e., 
Z.    nasion-intersection-bregma     of      pis.    x-xn.     This 


20  SANTA   BARBARA 

angle  also  oscillates  around  90°,  and  occurs  generally  at 
that  figure  in  varying  frequencies  in  the  different  series. 
The  deviations  do  not  frustrate  the  correlation  at  all, 
but  are  rather  in  accordance  with  the  variability  of 
organic  forms  in  general  {Falkenburger,  p.  94).  The 
cranio-facial  angle  of  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  is  like  87° 
in  B,  92°  in  C,  and  85°  in  D;  in  other  words,  it  falls  short 
of  the  ideal  angle  of  90°  in  B  and  D,  and  exceeds  it  in  C. 
Falkenburger  points  out  repeatedly  his  interesting  obser- 
vation that  with  increasing  prognathism  the  cranio- 
facial angle  also  increases,  an  observation  corroborated 
in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls,  and  it  is  particularly  the 
alveolar  prognathism  of  C  that  must  be  held  responsible 
for  such  deviation.  In  larger  series  the  variation  results 
correspondingly.  The  author  (p.  84)  gives,  for  instance, 
a  range  of  variation  for  Australians  of  86-96°,  with  an 
average  of  90.6°.  The  Haida  series  of  our  table  yielded 
averages  of  89.0°  and  88.1°  in  the  sexes  at  a  total  varia- 
tion of  86-92°.  The  two  individual  values  of  our  table 
represent  in  the  Australian  the  ideal  angle  of  90°,  while 
the  Swabian  slightly  exceeds  it  at  92°. 

The  parallelism  between  the  nasion-basion  and 
bregma-lambda  lines  also  shows  deviations  resulting  in 
either  their  anterior  or  posterior  convergence.  Falken- 
burger does  not  point  out  these  possibilities,  but  they  may 
be  distinguished  by  a  plus  or  a  minus  sign  in  the  two 
cases.  The  two  lines  deviate  in  skull  B  at  —3°,  in  skull  C 
at  +2°,  and  in  E  at  —15°,  which  finds  its  explanation 
in  part  in  the  stronger  declination  of  the  nasion-basion 
line  as  expressed  by  the  cranial  base-angle  of  33°  in  the 
males  and  27°  in  the  females.     The  two  bregma-lambda 


CRANIOLOGY  21 

lines,  on  the  other  hand,  are  nearly  parallel,  with  parietal 
angles  of  30°  and  29°  in  specimens  B  and  C,  while  an 
angle  of  20°  in  D  explains  the  stronger  posterior  diver- 
gence of  the  two  lines  in  question.  The  averages  of  the 
Haida  group  fall  on  the  plus  side  of  the  angle;  the  two 
individual  values  of  the  Australian  and  the  European 
are  found  on  the  minus  side. 

Another  relationship  seems  to  obtain  between  the 
correlations  described,  and  which  are  particularly  notice- 
able in  the  varying  figures  of  the  Santa  Barbara  speci- 
mens. It  is  seen  there  that  the  higher  "central  angle" 
associates  itself  with  a  proportionately  lower  cranio- 
facial angle  and  similarly  a  minus  divergence  of  the 
basion-nasion  and  bregma-lambda  lines,  and  vice  versa. 
It  appears  as  if  these  conditions  represent  a  sort  of 
compensatory  adjustment  of  the  varying  dimensions 
within  the  cranial  complex.  They  are  not  borne  out, 
however,  by  the  other  figures  of  our  table,  but  may  be 
worthy  of  special  study. 

NORMA  VERTICALIS 

Following  Giuseppe  SevgVs  (1893)  tassonomic  method 
of  enclosing  the  skull  contour  of  the  vertical  aspect 
within  a  geometrical  or  other  definite  outline,  speci- 
mens B,  C,  and  E  are  byrsoides  in  appearance, 
while  D  is  somewhat  more  roundish  on  account  of  its 
greater  frontal  width.  It  resembles  thus  rather  an 
ellipsoides  or  a  sphenoides  rotundus.  The  byrsoides 
differs  from  the  ovoides,  of  which  it  is  rather  a  subform, 
insofar  as  its  outlines  from  the  parietal  bulgings  forward 


22  SANTA   BARBARA 

are  not  continuously  convex  toward  the  frontal  outline, 
but  more  or  less  concave,  i.e.,  constricted  in  the  temporal 
region.  At  the  same  time,  the  occipital  contour  is 
well  rounded  off,  while  the  postorbital  constriction  is 
quite  marked.  The  dotted  outlines  of  skulls  B,  C,  and 
E  (pis.  vii-ix),  taken  in  ear-eye  orientation  at  the 
height  of  the  supraorbital  margin,  resemble  thus  those  of 
a  purse,  as  signified  by  the  term  byrsoides.1  The  out- 
lines are  amplified  each  by  solid  outlines  at  the  height  of 
the  ear-eye  plane  proper.  These  fall  entirely  within  the 
supra-orbital  outlines  posteriorly  of  the  ear-frontal  plane 
through  the  poria-points.  In  advance  of  it  they  trans- 
gress them,  inclosing  the  zygomatic  arches,  bridging 
spacious  temporal  fossae,  and  returning  finally  into  the 
supra-orbital  curve  in  skulls  C  and  E,  but  still  further 
exceeding  it  in  B.  This  is  indicative  of  a  facial  projec- 
tion in  the  latter,  which  will  be  properly  dealt  with  later 
(see  page  51). 

The  skull  C  (  9  )  is  slightly  plagiocrane  in  consequence 
of  a  mild  right  parieto-occipital  depression,  a  condition 
somewhat  more  pronounced  in  E  (c?),  and  referred  to  on 
pages  12,  14,  32,  121. 

The  sutures,  on  the  whole,  show  the  typical  regional 
differences.  Of  the  coronal  suture,  the  pars  bregmatica 
is  simple  in  the  four  skulls,  broadly  but  insignificantly 
meandering  in  B,  slightly  serrate  in  the  others,  but  some- 
what obscured  on  account  of  disarticulation  in  C.     They 

1  Liddell  and  ScoWs  dictionary  gives  the  following  trans- 
lation: T7  ffvpaa,  the  skin  stripped  off,  a  wine-skin.  In  a  wider 
sense  this  may  have  referred  to  the  similarly  shaped  purse 
which  is  a  direct  etymological  derivation. 


CRANIOLOGY  23 

correspond  to  forms  I  1  and  II  2  of  Oppenhetm's  (1907) 
scheme.  The  pars  complicata  is  individually  different, 
showing  rather  large  excursions  of  lively  movement  in  B , 
while  those  of  C  and  D  are  very  complicated  frizzy 
patterns,  both  comparable  with  numbers  1  and  3  of  the 
same  author's  sutures  of  rarely  occurring  designs.  The 
pars  complicata  of  E,  on  the  other  hand,  is  somewhat 
simpler  and  may  be  likened  to  form  IV  6.  The  partes 
temporales  of  the  coronal  sutures,  again  simplifying, 
represent  an  almost  exact  repetition  of  the  pars  breg- 
matica  patterns. 

The  pars  bregmatica  of  the  sagittal  sutures  resembles 
quite  precisely  those  of  the  coronal  sutures.  The  pars 
verticis  of  B  is  composed  of  long  and  moderately  narrow 
loops,  only  slightly  simplified  in  the  pars  obelica,  and 
continued  as  pars  postica  s.  lambdica  similar  to  the 
pars  verticis.  In  C  they  are  much  more  in  keeping  with 
the  sutural  character  of  the  pars  bregmatica  of  both, 
its  sagittal  and  coronal  sutures,  although  of  stronger, 
somewhat  irregular  dentation.  Here,  likewise,  the  pars 
obelica  is  only  slightly  modified  as  against  the  vertex 
and  lambda  parts.  The  sutural  patterns  of  the  three 
portions  of  the  sagittal  sutures  in  B  and  C,  outside  of  the 
partes  bregmaticae,  may  be  likened  to  Oppenheim's  II 
5  and  II  4. 

Altogether  livelier  is  the  sagittal  suture  of  D,  which 
indeed  refers  to  all  four  divisions  of  the  latter  and  which 
differ  between  themselves.  Thus,  while  the  pars  breg- 
matica of  this  suture  and  skull  conforms  to  scheme  IV 
3,  the  pars  verticis  equals  I  4,  the  pars  obelica  II  4,  and 
the  pars  postica  s.  lambdica  to  III  7.     Similarly  agitated 


24  SANTA    BARBARA 

is  the  sagittal  suture  of  E,  whose  first  two  divisions  may 
be  likened  to  I  3  and  4,  while  the  pars  obelica  is  more  like 
II  3,  and  the  short  pars  postica  s.  lambdica  like  IV  6. 

The  discussion  of  the  lambdoid  suture;  although 
belonging  rather  to  the  norma  occipitalis,,  may  neverthe- 
less have  its  place  in  this  connection.  In  all  human 
varieties  this  suture  is  the  most  complicated  in  its  partes 
lambdoideas  and  mediae,  while  the  third  divisions,  the 
partes  astericae,  range  with  the  simplest  of  all  the  cranial 
sutures.  The  partes  lambdoideae  of  B  and  C  are  com- 
paratively less  complicated  than  those  of  D  and  E,  the 
former  corresponding  to  Oppenheim's  sutural  patterns 
1 4  and  II 3,  while  the  latter  conforms  to  the  very  complex 
types  III  7  and  IV  8.  Following  in  character  these 
divisions,  the  partes  mediae  show  slight  differences  in 
type,  although  exceeding  in  complication  all  the  other 
sutures.  Thus,  while  the  pars  media  of  B  assumes  a 
form  like  II  6,  those  of  C  and  E  are  like  III  8  and  IV  8, 
the  latter  simply  continuing  the  pattern  of  its  pars  lamb- 
doidea.  The  lambdoid  suture  of  D  is  not  accounted  for 
because  of  the  defectiveness  of  this  skull. 

The  three  principal  cranial  sutures  of  our  skulls,  show- 
ing no  signs  of  obliteration,  are  neither  exceedingly  com- 
plicated nor  very  simple,  and  may  be  classed,  therefore, 
between  the  Europeans  as  the  exponents  of  the  former, 
and  the  Chinese  of  the  latter  condition. 

The  partes  bregmaticae  of  the  coronal  suture  are  only 
slightly  inclined  toward  each  other,  as  may  be  seen  in 
fig.  1.  With  the  bregma  as  a  vertex,  they  form  large 
coronal  angles  of  149°  in  B  and  152°  in  C,  160°  in  D  and 
150°  in  E.    According  to  Martin  (1914,  749)  this  angle 


CRANIOLOGY 


25 


Fig.  1, — Coronal   angle   of   partes   bregmaticas   of   coronal   sutures   in   the 
Santa  Barbara  skulls 


26  SANTA   BARBARA 

varies  from  75°  (Cebus)  to  140°  (Orang-utan)  in  simiidae. 
It  varies  also  in  the  human  skull,  short-headedness  pro- 
ducing larger  angles  than  long-headedness.  Brtix,  for 
instance,  has  a  coronal  angle  of  125°  only. 

How  variable  the  course  of  the  coronal  suture  may  be 
in  a  single  series  of  skulls  may  be  gained  from  fig.  2,  a-d. 
They  come  from  San  Miguel  island,  California,  and  are 
contained  in  the  collections  of  this  Museum.  In  a, 
a  fairly  straight  transverse  course  is  to  be  noticed,  while 
in  b  and  c  the  two  halves  of  the  coronal  suture  slant 
forward,  in  c,  however,  swinging  backward  again  and 
forming  semicircular  notches  before  the  forward  course 
is  resumed.  In  d  the  great  liveliness  of  the  sutures,  even 
of  their  partes  bregmaticae,  is  of  particular  interest.  In 
illustration  of  what  was  remarked  regarding  the  coronal 
angle  in  short-  and  long-headedness,  it  is  to  be  stated 
that  a  belongs  to  the  brachycranial  variety,  while  b-d 
are  mesocranial. 

The  foramina  parietalia  are  much  better  developed  in 
C  than  in  B.  While  their  typical  number  is  two  in  the 
former,  one  on  each  side  of  the  obelion  portion  of  the 
sagittal  suture,  and  at  about  1  mm.  in  diameter,  there  is 
only  one  tiny  foramen  parietale  on  the  left  side  of  B. 
The  foramina  parietalia  are  entirely  lacking  in  skulls  D 
and  E.  It  is  just  these  two  crania  whose  pars  obelica 
of  the  sagittal  suture  was  found  to  be  rather  complicated 
in  contrast  with  the  usual  behavior  there.  This  may 
have  something  to  do  with  the  absence  of  the  foramina, 
suggesting  a  premature  union  of  the  two  parietals  in 
the  obelion  region  of  the  occipital  fontanelle  and  the 
suppression  of  the  foramina.     Variation  as  to  multiple 


CRANIOLOGY 


27 


^%i^M^^**v 


d 


C^~^ 


Fig.  2. — Diversity  of  the  coronal  suture  in  skulls  from  San  Miguel  island, 
California.     (M.  A.  I.) 


28  SANTA    BARBARA 

or  uneven  occurrence  is  quite  frequent,  and  total  absence 
was  noted  in  19.2%  in  the  undeformed  skulls  from  the 
American  North  Pacific  Coast.1  Hrdlicka  (1916,  36) 
states  that  in  almost  half  of  the  Lenape  Indian  skulls 
there  are  no  parietal  foramina  at  all. 

Of  the  cranial  dimensions  observable  in  the  norma 
verticalis,  the  length  and  breadth  may  first  be  discussed. 
The  maximum  length  of  our  skulls  amounts  to  174  mm. 
in  B,  167  mm.  in  C,  177  mm.  in  D,  and  169  mm.  in  E. 
Within  the  physiological  range  of  the  cranial  length 
measurements  from  a  series  of  84  adult  skulls  from  San 
Miguel  island,  California,  and  extending  from  168-193 
mm.  in  men,  our  male  skulls  B  and  E  occupy  low  stations, 
while  D  conforms  exactly  with  the  male  average  of  177.0 
mm.  The  position  of  skull  C  in  the  female  range  of  that 
series  is  similar  to  the  position  of  B  and  E  in  the  male 
range.  Somewhat  different  falls  the  cranial  breadth. 
Skulls  B  and  D,  with  individual  breadths  of  141  mm.  and 
142  mm.,  hold  about  medium  positions  in  the  San  Miguel 
male  range  of  130-151  mm.,  while  E  attains  only  to  134 
mm.  The  cranial  breadth  of  131  mm.  in  the  female  skull 
C  is  almost  in  line  with  the  lowest  value  of  the  female 
range  of  130-140  mm.  The  cranial  length  and  breadth 
of  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens  are  thus  to  be  con- 
sidered as  rather  submedium.  The  length-breadth 
indices  computed  from  these  figures  render  the  two  male 
skulls  B  and  D  brachycranial  at  81.0  and  80.2,  but  E 

1  References  to  craniological  conditions  in  the  Pacific  North- 
west here  and  in  other  parts  of  this  monograph  are  from  the 
author's  studies  of  the  Jesup  Expedition  skeletal  material, 
not  yet  published. 


CRANIOLOGY  29 

and  the  female  skull  C  mesocranial  at  79.3  and  78.4. 
The  sex  difference  generally  observed,  of  greater  short- 
headedness  of  the  female  skull,  does  not  obtain  in  our 
specimens;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  individual 
values  only  are  dealt  with  here.  Group  averages  of  a 
larger  number  of  skulls  like  those  under  discussion  would 
quite  probably  be  in  keeping  with  that  general  condition. 
From  the  same  point  of  view  must  be  considered  the 
slightly  higher  indices  of  the  Santa  Barbara  male  skulls, 
and  the  slightly  lower  index  of  the  female,  when  com- 
pared with  the  San  Miguel  averages.  Mesocrany  with  a 
tendency  toward  brachycrany  is  the  character  of  both. 
The  minimum  frontal  breadth  as  an  expression  of  post- 
orbital  constriction  (Schwalbe  1899,  62-63)  amounts  to 
96  mm.  and  94  mm.  in  the  male  skulls  B  and  D,  and  90 
mm.  in  the  female.  Conspicuously  low  at  85  mm.  is 
this  measurement  in  the  male  E.  It  ranges  thus  below 
the  figures  88-92  mm.  which  Nehring  (1905)  quotes  as 
characteristically  low  for  skulls  from  Brazilian  Samba- 
quis.  Hoot  on  (1920,  93),  on  the  other  hand,  found  in 
the  Madisonville  (Ohio)  crania  averages  of  94.97  mm. 
and  92.71  mm.  in  the  two  sexes,  but  the  lowest  values 
of  his  ranges  drop  to  87  mm.  in  the  males  and  to  85  mm. 
in  the  females;  both  ranges,  however,  rise  to  103  mm. 
Compared  with  the  average  value  of  minimum  frontal 
breadth  in  brachycranial  groups  {Martin  1914,  759), 
namely  99  mm.,  all  of  our  four  values  fall  below  that 
average.  But  their  real  significance  becomes  manifest  if 
brought  in  proportion  to  the  parietal  breadth  as  expressed 
by  the  transverse  fronto-parietal  index.  This  index 
falls  with  68.1  in  B,  66.2  in  D,  and  68.7  in  C,  markedly 


30  SANTA    BARBARA 

below  77,  which  Martin  (1914,  759)  quotes  as  an  average 
for  brachycrany,  but  coincides  with  Sullivan's  (1921) 
Andamanese  at  68.1  and  67.8  for  the  two  sexes,  whose 
average  cranial  indices  are  83.4  and  81.0.  Considerably 
below  that  average  lies  the  index  of  skull  E,  namely 
63.4,  and  that  on  account  of  its  minimum  frontal  breadth 
of  only  85  mm.  It  is  thus  seen  that,  although  the  abso- 
lute frontal  breadth  measurements  of  our  skulls  B,  C,  and 
D  are  not  excessively  low,  they  appear  to  be  so  in  the 
cranial  complex.  Nevertheless,  they  fall  into  the  metrio- 
metopic  class  of  the  transverse  fronto-parietal  index. 
Quite  different,  of  course,  is  the  position  of  skull  E,  whose 
low  index  of  63.4  marks  it  stenometopic. 

There  is,  however,  a  morphological  detail  which,  in 
spite  of  the  non-excessive  minimum  frontal  breadth,  adds 
to  the  impression  of  pronounced  postorbital  constric- 
tion: the  horizontal  trend  of  the  processus  zygomaticus 
of  the  frontal  bone,  and,  in  consequence  thereof,  the  obvi- 
ous lateral  deviation  of  the  crista  temporalis  of  the  fron- 
tal bone.  This  condition  will  more  suitably  be  referred 
to  in  the  discussion  of  the  norma  frontalis  (page  83). 

As  to  Indian  skulls  with  narrow  foreheads,  there  is  in 
our  collection  the  full-grown  skull  of  a  Carijo  Indian  of 
the  Guarani  stock  of  southern  Brazil,  with  even  a  smaller 
mmimum  frontal  breadth  than  that  listed  by  Nehring 
for  the  Sambaqui  skulls,  namely  85  mm.,  which  thus 
corresponds  with  our  skull  E.  This  Carijo  skull  is  doli- 
chocranial  at  72.6,  as  against  the  mesocranial  skull  E 
at  79.3,  its  transverse  fronto-parietal  index  dropping  to 
66.9  as  compared  with  63.4  in  the  same  Santa  Barbara 
skull.     The  lower  index  of  the  latter  is  due  to  its  greater 


CRANIOLOGY 


31 


parietal  (maximum  cranial)  breadth  134  mm.  to  127  mm., 
while  both  min  mum  frontal  breadths  amount  to  85  mm., 
as  mentioned  above.  In  consequence  of  the  pronounced 
postorbital  constriction  in  conjunction  with  bulging 
zygomatic  arches,  the  latter  are  phaenozygous  in  the 
vertical  aspect,  as  shown  in  the  photographic  reproduc- 
tions (pis.  xxi-xxiii).  The  cranial  measurements 
pertaining  to  the  norma  verticalis  are  listed  in  the  fol- 
lowing table. 


CRANIAL  MEASUREMENTS 

-3 

o 

o 

h 

u 

J3 

T3 

C3 

<D 

A 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

O 

u 

J5 

"3 

•3 

ccj 
CD 

fi 

o 

c 

o 

.£» 

^C 

3 

o 

u 

ca 

-3 

S 

£ 

so 

'5 

CO 

u 

CD 

£ 

T3 
CD 

a 

CD 

'S 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

's 

Santa  Barbara 

B    (tf1) 

174 

141 

96 

81.0 

68.1 

C   (9) 

167 

131 

90 

78.4 

68.7 

(D     <?) 

177 

142 

94 

80.2 

66.2 

E   {<?) 

169 

134 

85. 

79.3 

63.4 

San  Miguel  island 

ft? 

177.0 

139.7 

— 

78.3 

— 

Averages  <  g 

(168-193) 
170.0 

(130-151) 
135.3 

(72.0-83.9) 
79.2 

__ 

(164-175) 

(130-140) 

(77.1-83.3) 

Carijo  (Brazil  )cf 

175 

127 

85 

72.6 

66.9 

NORMA  LATERALIS 


The  main  impression  given  by   the  outlines   of   the 
Santa  Barbara  skulls  in  side  view  is   in  addition    to 


32  SANTA    BARBARA 

an  even  vaulting  of  the  brain  case,  the  bulging 
development  of  the  postauricular  portion,  and  the  pro- 
trusion of  the  face.  The  frontal  outline  is  mildly  retreat- 
ing, showing  the  typical  flexion  of  the  human  forehead 
by  the  supraglabellar  depression  above  weakly  devel- 
oped superciliary  ridges.  The  frontal  outline  is  con- 
tinued into  that  of  the  parietal,  which  reaches  its  highest 
point  behind  the  bregma,  more  so  in  skulls  C  and  E  than 
in  B.  In  each  of  the  skulls  the  postbregmatic  eleva- 
tion is  perfectly  absorbed  by  the  evenness  of  the  general 
outline.  The  extreme  occipital  extension  is  reached  in 
B,  D,  and  E  by  a  slight  curving  fall  from  the  vertex, 
which  is  somewhat  more  abrupt  in  C.  The  entire  occipi- 
tal curve  is  well  rounded,  with  almost  no  indication  of 
an  inial  flexure  in  B  and  C,  owing  to  a  very  weak  develop- 
ment of  the  occipital  relief,  which  however  is  slightly 
more  marked  in  D.  The  mastoid  processes  pointing 
forward  at  about  45°  with  the  plane  of  ear-eye  orientation 
are  well  developed,  and  of  elegant  form  in  B  and  E,  but 
rather  small  and  insignificant  in  C.  The  elliptic  pori 
acustici  externi  are  rather  large  in  the  three  skulls, 
even  somewhat  wider  in  the  female,  and  vertically 
oriented.  The  right  porus  of  E  is  slightly  compressed 
bilaterally,  very  probably  in  consequence  of  the  depres- 
sion on  that  side  of  the  cranium  referred  to  on  pages 
12,  14,  22,  121.  The  tympanic  margins  are  only  scantily 
thickened  inferiorly  and  posteriorly,  excessive  thicken- 
ing being  very  frequently  found  in  Indian  skulls  of  the 
Pacific  area,  as  is  well  known,  and  in  those  of  the  Eskimo. 
Turning  now  to  the  face,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the 
nasion   shows   no    depression   whatsoever.      The   nasal 


CRANIOLOGY  33 

bones  protrude  somewhat  in  their  lower  portions,  i.e., 
are  convex  in  outline,  particularly  in  skulls  B  and  D, 
while  the  upper  form  deep  concavities,  but  no  side-to- 
side  flattening.  The  facial  protrusion,  which  is  quite 
pronounced  in  B  and  C,  is  augmented  by  alveolar  prog- 
nathism in  the  female  skull  C.  It  differs,  however, 
from  alveolar  prognathism,  for  intance,  of  the  Veddah, 
in  whom  the  cousins  Sarasin  pointed  out  the  enhance- 
ment of  that  condition  by  prodenty,  i.e.,  the  strongly 
inclining  incisor  teeth.  In  the  Santa  Barbara  female 
skull  the  teeth  are  vertically  set  and  labidodont  with 
those  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  the  teeth  of  skulls  B  and  C, 
which  are  fairly  complete  in  both  skulls,  the  plane  of 
mastication  is  convexly  rounded  in  the  upper  jaws,  and 
in  the  fore-to-aft  direction,  while  that  of  the  lower  jaw 
forms  a  compensatory  concavity  for  complete  occlusion 
of  the  two  dental  rows.  Those  of  E  do  not  exhibit  this 
condition.  The  chins  are  only  slightly  protruding,  a 
feature  in  keeping  with  the  Mongoloid  characteristics. 

Muscle  marks  are  rather  weakly  developed,  except  the 
temporal  ones  in  B  and  E.  The  temporal  crest  of  the 
frontal  bone  in  the  former  is  strong  and  sharp.  The 
lineae  temporales,  into  which  it  continues  in  an  even 
curve,  are  well  marked.  The  upper  temporal  line 
diverges  from  the  frontal  crest  about  2.5  cm.  before  it 
reaches  the  coronal  suture,  the  zonula  circummuscularis 
becoming  wider  and  comprising  the  parietal  bump. 
In  a  sharp  turn  and  continuing  along  the  lambdoid 
suture  they  terminate  in  the  mastoid  region,  the  zonula 
circummuscularis  diminishing  in  width  at  the  same  time. 
The  asterion  region  is  somewhat  rugged,  less  so  the  area 


34  SANTA    BARBARA 

of  muscular  insertion  (mm.  sternocleidomastoideus  and 
splenius  capitis)  on  the  outside  of  the  mastoids.  The 
female  skull  has  all  these  details  in  a  less  marked  degree, 
although  the  mastoid  outer  surface  is  more  rugged  than' 
that  of  the  male,  and  in  spite  of  much  smaller  mastoid 
processes.  The  cristae  supramastoideae  are  well 
marked,  although  not  excessively,  in  our  specimens,  and 
correspond  more  or  less  with  the  conditions  generally 
met  in  Indian  skulls  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  The  supra- 
mastoid  fossas  are  for  that  reason  not  very  deep. 

The  shape  of  the  temporal  squama  differs  in  our  skulls, 
tending  to  be  shorter  and  higher  in  B,  and  longer  and 
lower  in  C  and  E.  It  is  a  general  observation  that,  in 
connection  with  the  former,  deeper  cut  mastoid  incisures 
are  found,  i.e.,  incisurae  of  an  angularity  of  90°  or  less. 
How  different,  however,  the  conditions  may  be  found  in 
one  and  the  same  skull  is  demonstrated  by  fig.  3,  a  and 
b,  where  the  two  tempora"  squamae  of  B  are  shown  in 
contraposition.  Of  about  equal  height,  the  right  squama 
produces  a  sharp-angled  incisura  mastoidea,  while  on 
the  left  side  it  is  indicated  by  a  shallow  concavity  only. 
The  formation  of  an  incisura  mastoidea  comes  about 
occasionally  by  the  crista  supramastoidea  forming  a 
triangular  ridge-like  projection  of  the  temporal  squama. 
This  temporal  ridge  is  sometimes  found  continued  as  a 
parietal  one  upon  the  parietal  bone,  where  it  then  ter- 
minates thinning  or  sickle-shape,  as  is  the  case  in  a  mild 
form  in  skull  E.  Both  formations  are  shown  in  fig. 
4,  a,  b,  the  thorn-like  one  being  that  of  a  Bellacoola 
male  (no.  4626,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History), 
the  ridge  belonging  to  a  male  Haida  (no.  3738,  same). 


CRAN10L0GY 


35 


The  first  case  in  particular  is  instructive  for  the  reason 
that  the  low  squama  temporal's  would  very  probably 


Fig.  3. — Right  and  left  squama  temporalis  of  Santa  Barbara  B  (c?)  to 
show  difference  of  incisurge  mastoideag  (see  arrows)  and  incipient  stages  of 
processus  frontales  (x).  a,  left  squama;  b,  right  squama;  E — E',  ear-eye 
plane.     (About  §  natural  size.) 

have  been  without  a  parietal  incisura  were  it  not  for  the 
triangular  projection  of  the  supramastoid    crista,   the 


36 


SANTA    BARBARA 


u 


CRANIOLOGY  37 

latter  continuing  very  slightly  upon  the  parietal. 
Stronger  parietal  projections  are  quite  frequently  encoun- 
tered in  skulls  from  the  Pacific  Northwest,  as  mentioned 
on  page  33 . 

The  squamosal  sutures  are  very  simple,  on  the  whole, 
becoming  slightly  livelier  posteriorly.  The  zygomatic 
processes  of  the  temporal  squamae  in  B  and  E  incline 
very  slightly  and  reach  their  maximum  depression  at  a 
point  above  the  anterior  s'ope  of  the  well-developed  artic- 
ular tubercles.  From  this  point  they  rise  again  to  con- 
tinue evenly  into  the  temporal  processes  of  the  zygoma- 
tic bones.  In  C  the  arcus  are  perfectly  straight.  Both 
these  forms  show  too  little  significance  to  associate  them 
with  racial  types;  they  occur  in  Europeans,  Negroes,  and 
Mongoloids. 

The  temporal  squamae  of  B  are  markedly  bulged  later- 
ally, signifying  a  better  development  of  the  temporal 
lobes  of  the  brain  as  compared  with  more  plane  surfaces 
of  the  squamae  in  C  and  E.  The  sulcus  sphenoparietalis 
(Schwalbe) ,  indicative  on  the  cranial  outside  of  the  divid- 
ing furrow  of  the  fronto-parietal  and  temporal  lobes  of 
the  brain  (fissura  Sylvii),  is  therefore  somewhat  more 
distinct  in  the  male  skull  B. 

The  fossae  temporales  are  spacious  transversely,  as  well 
as  longitudinally,  especially  in  the  female  skull.  Here 
and  in  E  this  state  is  recognizable  by  the  greater  length  of 
the  spheno-parietal  suture  and  the  greater  width  of  the 
ala  magna.  In  skull  B,  on  the  other  hand,  the  temporal 
squama  extends  farther  forward  into  the  fossa  tem- 
poralis, thus  shortening  the  length  of  the  latter.  For 
a  better  understanding  of  the  size  and  depth  of  the  tern- 


& 


\  Y^ 

\  \  \  <  } 

ft (7 

) 

W..A/  * 

v*J 

xfe 

•/'I 

Xn. 

./  \ 

'//            z' 

m 

Fig.  5. — Tracings  of  fossa  temporalis  of  skull  B  (cf )  in  ear-eye  orientation, 

on  a  level  with:  ear-eye  plane: minimum  frontal  breadth; 

zygomatico-frontal    suture; ektokonchion;     — .— . 

crista    infratemporal,     e — -/,    ear-frontal;    m — s,    median    sagittal    plane. 
(|  natural  size.) 


Fig.  6. — Tracings  of  fossa  temporalis  of  skull  C  (  9 )  in  ear-eye  orientation. 
Levels  and  markings  as  in  fig.  5.     (§  natural  size) 


38 


CRANIOLOGY 


39 


poral  fossae  of  our  three  skulls,  their  outlines  have  been 
traced  at  different  levels  as  shown  in  figs.  5-7.  En- 
closed in  a  facial  curve  coinciding  with  the  ear-eye  plane, 
the  temporal  fossae  have  been  traced  at  the  four  different 
levels  of  the  minimum  frontal  breadth,  the  zygomatico- 
frontal  suture,  the  ektokonchion,  and  the  crista  infra- 


Fig.  7. — Tracings  of  fossa  temporalis  of  skull  E  (d")  in  ear-eye  orientation 
Levels  and  markings  as  in  fig.  5.     (5  natural  size) 

temporalis.  The  latter  illustrates  in  every  case  the 
greatest  depth  of  the  temporal  fossae,  which  gradually 
diminishes  upward.  The  curve  systems  are  supple- 
mented by  the  next  table  of  measurements.  It  gives 
the  length  of  the  fossa  temporalis  as  taken  between  the 
deepest  point  of  the  notch  of  the  zygomatic  process  of 
the  temporal  bone,   and   the  sutura  zygomaticomaxil- 


40 


SANTA    BARBARA 


laris  on  its  temporal  course,  and  at  half  the  corpus  height 
of  the  zygomatic  bone;  the  width  of  the  temporal  fossa 
as  measured  between  the  crista  infratemporalis1  and  the 
temporal  surface  of  the  zygomatic  arch,  parallel  with  the 
frontal  plane;  the  index  derived  from  these  two  measure- 
ments; the  length  of  the 
sphenoparietal  suture  be- 
tween the  krotaphion  and 
sphenion  measuring  points; 
the  combined  lengths  of  the 
sphenoparietal  and  spheno- 
frontal sutures,  directly  be- 
tween the  krotaphion  and 
sphenofrontale  (mihi;  the 
point  of  meeting  of  the 
sphenofrontal  and  spheno- 
zygomatic sutures) ;  the  pro- 
jective distance  between  the 
krotaphion  and  frontotem- 
porale,  the  latter  indicating 
on  the  crista  temporalis  of 
the  frontal  bone  the  point  of 
greatest  frontal  constriction. 
The  anatomical  configuration  in  the  fossa  temporalis 
and  the  landmarks  are  illustrated  in  fig.  8. 

The  table,  with  a  few  additions,  lists  only  the  Santa 
Barbara  data  and  may  be  used  as  a  model  for  future 
comparative  study. 

1  The  tuberculum  spinosum  of  the  crista  infratemporalis 
may  be  recommended  as  a  measuring  point,  if  not  so  bulky 
as  to  modify  the  true  width  of  the  temporal  fossa. 


Fig.  8. — Anatomical  configuration 
and  landmarks  of  fossa  temporalis. 
//,  frontotemporale;  sphf,  spheno- 
frontale; sphn,  sphenion;  k,  krota- 
phion. 


CRANIOLOGY 


41 


FOSSA 

temporalis" 

a3 

o 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

o 
o 

.So 

s  2 

O  a) 

,n 

O   O- 
tn   en 

~C  O 

to 
a 

^3 

-a 

to 

G 

-2-g 
o  & 

oS 

<U 

> 

& 

w 

M 

M 

r 

1 

r 

1 

r 

1 

r 

1 

r 

1 

r 

1 

Santa  Barbara 

* 

B    (cf) 

38 
42 

41 

38 
40 

42 

30 
30 

28 

28 

30 

78.9 
71.4 
68.3 

73.7 
75.0 
69.0 

4 
14 
14 

7 
16 
16 

28 
33 
37 

28 
34 
38 

31 
37 
41 

31 

C   (9  ) 

4? 

E   (d1) 

44 

-~     ,    •             +(cf 

29 

27 
25.5 

Eskimol  <  g 

Europeans^ 

*  The  measurements  are  in  millimeters. 

t  For  explanations  see  text  immediately  preceding 

%  Cameron  1923,  p.c.  39. 


The  difference  of  dimension  between  the  two  sides  of 
the  skull  is  the  rule  in  the  listings  of  this  table.  The 
length-width  index  of  the  fossa  temporalis  is  more  influ- 
enced by  its  variable  length  than  by  its  width,  which  is 
more  stable.  The  male  width  is  quite  in  keeping  with 
Cameron's  figure  for  Eskimo,  while  his  female  Eskimo 
range  below  the  female  Santa  Barbara  skull.  The 
Europeans  have  a  width  of  only  25.5  mm.;  it  must  be 
taken  in  consideration,  however,  that  the  zygomatic 
bridge,  which  is  involved  in  this  measurement,  represents 
a  racially  differing  feature.  Coinciding  with  the  low 
indices  of  our  skull  E  (cf)  are  seen  the  high  sutural 
lengths  as  compared  with  those  of  B  (d71)  and  C  (  9), 
a  fact  already  referred  to. 

Additional   mention   should   be   made   regarding   the 


42  SANTA    BARBARA 

sphenoparietal  suture  of  skull  B.  Approaching  the 
stenocrotaphic  state :  with  a  length  of  only  4  mm.,  the 
left  suture  takes  a  strong  upward  turn.  The  krotaphion 
is  situated  on  the  summit  of  a  trapezoid  projection  of  the 
temporal  squama,  denoting  an  incipient  stage  of  the 
processus  frontalis. 

This  condition  is  prompted  on  the  right  side  of  skull  B 
by  a  sharp  rectangular  forward  turn  of  the  squamosal 
suture,  which  latter  is  evenly  continued  into  the  spheno- 
squamosal  suture.  Fig.  3,  a,  b,  depict  these  slightly 
irregular  appearances. 

The  shape  of  the  processus  frontosphenoidalis  is  rather 
slender  and  high  in  our  three  skulls,  with  marginal 
processes  hardly  indicated.  In  the  fragments  of  skull  A, 
however,  the  frontosphenoidal  process  is  somewhat  more 
robust,  and  the  marginal  one  well  developed.  The 
height  of  the  processus  frontosphenoidalis  in  our  skulls 
is  influenced  by  the  more  horizontally  directed  zygo- 
matic processes  of  the  frontal  bone,  particularly  in  skull 
B.     The  bearing  of  this  condition  on  the  production  and 

1  A  stenocrotaphic  state  is  reached  with  a  length  of  3-0 
mm.  of  the  sutura  sphenoparietal  (R.  Virchow  1875,  52). 
Lange  (1924,  373)  has  found  that  the  greatest  absolute  length 
of  the  suture  occurs  in  Europeans;  it  is  less  extended  in  the 
Negroes,  and  shortest  in  the  Australians.  Stenocrotapby 
was  noted  in  the  undeformed  North  Pacific  crania  in  0.8% 
on  the  right,  1.6%  on  the  left,  and  0.8%  on  both  sides.  This 
insignificant  frequency  does  not  conform  with  Anutschin's 
(Martin  1914,  780)  findings  of  3.0  %  in  Mongols  of  North 
Asia,  5.8%  in  Mongols  in  general,  and  even  8.2%  in  Chinese. 
It  is  an  interesting  fact,  however,  that  the  frequency  of 
stenocrotaphy  rises  in  the  deformed  skulls  of  the  North  Pacific 
Coast. 


CRANIOLOGY  43 

extent  of  postorbital  constriction  is  referred  to  on  page 
30  and  will  be  further  discussed  on  page  83.  In  a  previ- 
ous publication  (Oetteking  1919)  racial  differences  prevail- 
ing in  this  region  as  concerns  the  shape  and  lateral  reces- 
sion of  the  process  under  discussion  have  been  pointed  out. 
It  was  shown  there  that  among  European,  Eskimo,  and 
Negro,  the  first  named  held  a  medium  position  as  regards 
the  recession  of  the  processus  frontosphenoidalis.  Meas- 
sured  in  lateral  projection  between  the  medial  and  lateral 
borders  of  the  left  orbit  (maxillof ronta'e-ektokonchion) , 
the  greatest  distance  amounted  to  9  mm.  in  the  Eskimo, 
13  mm.  in  the  European,  and  16  mm.  in  the  Negro. 
Our  three  skulls,  with  14  mm.  in  B,  and  12  mm.  each  in 
C  and  E,  thus  conform  with  medium  conditions  as 
represented  by  Europeans.  The  orbital  measurements 
in  general  are  treated  on  pages  91,  98. 

Among  the  main  measurements  observable  in  norma 
lateralis  are  those  of  the  cranial  length  and  height. 
The  former  has  been  discussed  in  connection  with  the 
norma  verticalis.  The  basion-bregma  height  of  B  is  134 
mm.,  of  C  125  mm.,  and  of  E  133  mm.  Compared  with 
the  height  averages  of  129.9  mm.  and  122.4  mm.  of  the 
two  sexes  of  the  San  Miguel  skull  series,  the  cranial 
heights  of  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  exceed  them.  This 
is  demonstrated  also  by  their  relative  position  within  the 
ranges  of  variation  of  120-139  mm.  and  115-130  mm.  for 
the  San  Miguel  males  and  females.  The  length-height 
index  becomes  accordingly  77.0  for  skull  B,  74.9  for 
skull  C,  and  78.7  for  skull  E,  rendering  the  two  males 
hypsicranial,  the  female  orthocranial,  but  at  the  border 
line    of    orthocrany    and    hypsicrany.     The    relatively 


44  SANTA    BARBARA 

high  individual  values  of  the  length-height  index  of  the 
Santa  Barbara  crania  are  somewhat  disproportionate  to 
the  San  Miguel  averages  of  72.5  and  71.4  in  the  two  sexes, 
although  covered  by  the  range  of  variation  of  the  latter. 
The  difference  is  due,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table  of 
measurements,  to  both  the  greater  length  and  the  lesser 
height  of  the  San  Miguel  skulls.  In  dolichocranial 
Mongoloid  varieties  like  the  Eastern  Eskimo,  the  length- 
height  index  is  naturally  decisively  influenced  by  the 
relatively  greater  cranial  length.  Thus,  while  the 
basion-bregma  height  in  that  human  variety  {Oetteking 
1909)  yielded  an  average  as  high  as  134.6  mm.,  at  a  range 
of  from  128-144  mm.,  the  length-height  index  yielded 
only  an  orthocranial  average  of  73.7,  owing  to  the  greater 
cranial  length  averaging  182.3  mm.  from  a  range  of  171- 
200  mm.  Chama^crany,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  pre- 
vailing condition  in  the  paleolithic  skulls  (La  Chapelle- 
aux-Saints  =  62.9,  and  approximately:  Piltdown  = 
68.4;  Galley  Hill  =  67.4),  owing  here  to  their  excessive 
cranial  length,  which  amounts  to  208  mm.  in  the  first- 
named  skull. 

The  cranial  ear-heights  (porion-bregma)  nearly  coin- 
cide with  112  mm.  in  B  and  111  mm.  in  C,  while  E  has 
only  109  mm.  A  pronounced  sex  difference  was  noticed 
in  the  San  Miguel  skulls,  where  the  males  attained  an 
average  of  111.2  mm.  against  104.2  mm.  for  the  females. 
The  difference  between  their  basion-bregma  and  porion- 
bregma  heights  is  the  result  of  different  infraporial 
extension.  The  basion-porion  portions  of  the  cranial 
height  measure  22  mm.  in  B,  14  mm.  in  C,  and  26  mm. 
in  E,  showing  the  two  male  skulls  considerably  in  excess 


CRANIOLOGY  45 

of  the  female  skull.  This  seems  to  be  the  general  con- 
dition between  the  two  sexes,  although  R.  Virchow 
(quoted  by  R.  Martin  1914,  691)  found  the  position 
of  the  porion  to  be  higher  in  Frisian  women.  In  our 
frequently  mentioned  San  Miguel  series  there  is  an 
average  infraporial  extension  of  20.3  mm.  in  men  and 
17.9  mm.  in  women,  varying  from  13  mm.  to  30  mm.  and 
12  mm.  to  24  mm.  respectively.  Males  and  females 
combined  yield  an  average  of  19.9  mm.,  which  ranges 
among  the  highest  quoted  by  Martin  (p.  691),  compris- 
ing the  Maori  with  19.4  mm.,  Papuans  with  20.3  mm., 
and  Old  Egyptians  with  21.6  mm.  The  infraporial 
height  varies  according  to  the  same  author  from  6  mm. 
to  26  mm.  in  the  human  varieties. 

The  ear-heights  brought  into  proportion  with  the 
length  measurements  of  174  mm.,  167  mm.,  and  169 
mm.,  in  the  three  Santa  Barbara  skulls,  give  rise  to 
indices  of  64.4  for  B,  66.5  for  C,  and  63.9  for  E.  Apply- 
ing for  the  ear-height  index  the  same  nomenclature  as 
used  for  the  cranial  height  index,  all  our  skulls  turn  out 
hypsicranial,  the  female  even  more  than  the  two  males. 
The  ear-height  index  reverses  somewhat  the  calculations 
of  our  cranial  height  index  in  so  far  as  skull  C  (  9 ),  which 
was  found  to  be  orthocranial  by  the  latter,  is  hypsicranial 
by  the  former,  and  even  exceeds  the  two  male  skulls  in 
ear-height  hypsicrany.  The  reason  is  to  be  seen,  first, 
in  the  smaller  infraporial  extension  of  the  height  diame- 
ter in  C,  and,  secondly,  its  smaller  cranial  length.  The 
San  Miguel  averages  of  the  ear-height  index  at  61  + 
are  orthocranial,  although  their  range  of  variation 
comprises   also   a  number  of  hypsicranial  individuals. 


46 


SANTA    BARBARA 


From  a  general  point  of  view  it  seems  that  the  peoples  of 
Mongol  extraction  manifest  a  tendency  toward  hypsi- 
crany,  while  the  true  Mongols  (Buriat,  Ostiak,  Kal- 
muck) are  rather  platycranial. 

The  measurements  just   discussed    are   listed  in    the 
following  table. 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (<?) 

C   (9) 

E.(cf). 

San  Miguel  island 

1 
Averages  {  9  . 

I 
I 


CRANIAL  HEIGHT  MEASUREMENTS 


174 
167 
169 

177 
(168- 

193) 

170 
(164- 

175) 


134 
125 
133 

129.9 
(120- 

139) 
122.4 
(115- 
130) 


77.0 
74.9 

78.7 

72.5 
(66.3- 

79.3) 

71.4 
(66.9- 

76.0) 


to  o 


£   o 


22 
14 
26 

20.3 
(13- 

30) 

17.9 
(12- 

24) 


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mm. 

112 

64.4 

111 

66.5 

109 

63.9 

111.2 

61.5 

(100- 

(56.8- 

118) 

66.7) 

104.2 

61.3 

(100- 

(59.4- 

118) 

64 

-9) 

The  median-sagittal  arc  is,  with  359  mm.,  largest  in 
the  male  B,  while  that  of  the  other  male,  E,  measures 
342  mm.,  and  the  female,  C,  only  340  mm.  This  is  in 
conformity  with  about  average  conditions  on  the  coast 
of  southern  California,  but  conspicuously  less  than  the 
averages  of  tribes  farther  north,  like  the  Haida  with  male 
and  female  averages  of  371.2  mm.  and  355.2  mm.,  or 
the  Western  Eskimo  at  366.4  mm.  and  356.6  mm. 


CRANIOLOGY  47 

Of  greater  interest  is  the  participation  of  the  individual 
arcs  that  constitute  the  median-sagittal  arc.  The  pro- 
portional lengths  of  the  frontal,  parietal,  and  occipital 
divisions  are  as  119-120-120  mm.  in  B,  114-126-100 
mm.  in  C,  and  113-105-124  mm.  in  E.  The  parietal 
arc  exceeding  both  the  frontal  and  occipital  arcs  in  true 
human  proportion  is  the  condition  met  in  the  female 
skull  C,  and  is  only  conditionally  true  of  B.  Here  the 
three  participants  are  almost  of  the  same  length,  which 
is  the  exact  proportion  between  the  parietal  and  occipital 
arcs,  while  the  frontal  is  only  1  mm.  in  default.  The 
two  arcs  of  the  skull  cap  D,  with  121  mm.  for  the  frontal 
and  123  mm.  for  the  parietal,  retain  the  proportion  as 
met  in  B  and  C.  Fully  out  of  the  ordinary  are  the  pro- 
portions of  skull  E,  with  113-105-124  mm.  The  parietal 
arc  is  exceeded  here  by  both  the  frontal  and  the  occipital, 
owing  in  the  latter  perhaps  to  the  excessive  development 
of  the  interparietal  part  of  the  occipital  squama.  Agree- 
ing with  Schwalbe  that  in  50%  of  human  skulls  the  fron- 
tal arc  exceeds  the  parietal,  while  in  42.8%  the  reverse  is 
true  as  a  progressive  proportion,  the  remainder  going  to 
the  proportion  of  equality,  skulls  B,  C,  and  D  are  seen 
to  conform  with  the  progressive  state,  while  E  marks  in 
every  respect  the  opposite.  Equality  of  frontal  and 
parietal  arcs  at  121  mm.  was  noted  in  La  Chapelle- 
aux-Saints.  The  larger  frontal  arc,  however,  seems  to 
be  the  prevailing  condition  in  the  undeformed  skulls  from 
the  North  Pacific  Coast,  where  the  three  proportions — 
frontal  arc  greater  than  parietal,  equal  with  parietal, 
or  smaller  than  parietal — occur  in  the  males  in  the  pro- 
portions 82.1%-3.8%-14.1%,  and  in  the  females  in 
82.3%-5.9%-11.8%. 


48 


SANTA    BARBARA 


The  measurements  just  discussed  are  combined  in  the 
following  table. 


MEDIAN-SAGITTAL  ARC 

Arc 

Fronto-parietal 
proportions 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

o 

rt.- 

*c5 

a 

o 

'a, 
o 

u 

c3 

Pi 
A 

II 

Ph 
V 

to 

P4 

O 

c 

to 

to 

f»H 

»M». 

mm. 

mm. 

nun. 

Oh 

**" 

/o 

/0 

07 

Santa  Barbara.  . .  . 

B    (c?) 

359 
340 

119 
114 

121 

120 
126 
123 

120 
100 

100.8 
110.5 
101.7 

— 

— 



C   (9  ) 



(D     d1) 

— 

E   (c?) 

342 

113 

105 

124 

92.9 

— ■ 

— 



North  Pacific  Coast 

Undeformed 

r 

363.6 
(317- 
395) 

127.2 
(109- 

145) 

119 

(88- 

139) 

117.6 
(103- 

140) 

93.6 

82.1 

3.8 

14.1 

Averages  1  9  .  •  . 

350 

122.3 

115 

112 

95.6 

82.3 

5.9 

11. S 

(325- 

(113- 

(102- 

(98- 

1 

380) 

135) 

131) 

123) 

La  Chapelle-aux- 

357 

121 

121 

115 

100.0 

■ 

Important  in  a  racial  diagnosis  are  declination  and 
curvature  of  the  frontal  bone,  because  both  determine  the 
relative  position  of  the  forehead  in  the  cranial  complex. 
Hrdlicka  (1907,  1908)  has  repeatedly  called  attention  to 
the  "low  forehead"  in  non-deformed  Indian  skulls,  but 
without  proving  his  observations  methodically.  From 
his  comments  it  is  quite  clear  that  low  vaulting,  as  well 
as  different  degrees  of  sloping,  was  involved.  At  first 
glance  our  three  skulls  give  the  impression  of  the  dis- 
tinctive development   of   both  those  conditions.     How- 


CRANIOLOGY  49 

ever,  this  is  somewhat  deceptive  with  regard  to  the 
declination  of  the  frontal  bone,  as  will  be  seen.  The 
angles  formed  by  the  nasion-bregma  chord  with  a  parallel 
of  the  ear-eye  plane  passing  through  the  nasion  are 
48°  in  B  and  E,  and  51°  in  C,  thus  preserving  between 
themselves  the  predominance  of  the  female  angle  over 
the  male — the  condition  most  frequently  present.  The 
Santa  Barbara  skulls  fall  well  within  the  variation  of, 
for  instance,  the  San  Miguel  islanders  of  (39)  43-54°, 
and  whose  averages  are  47.2°  for  the  males  and  46.4° 
for  the  females.  Lower  averages,  at  least  for  the  males, 
were  found  for  the  Haida,  namely,  43.6°  and  50.4°, 
while  the  Western  Eskimo  have  46.1°  in  both  sexes. 
Taking  further  into  consideration  the  averages  of  North 
Pacific  undeformed  skulls,  amounting  to  46.0°  and  48.1° 
in  the  two  sexes,  the  variations  running  from  40°  to  54° 
and  43°  to  54°  respectively,  it  is  clear  that  we  cannot 
attribute  to  our  skulls  any  exceptional  position  among 
the  Pacific  groups  as  regards  the  declination  of  the  fron- 
tal bone.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  cite  in  this  connection 
the  declination  of  the  frontal  bone  in  the  La  Chapelle- 
aux-Saints  skull  which,  on  account  of  its  fair  state  of 
preservation  among  the  Neandertaloids,  admits  of  an 
orientation  in  the  ear-eye  plane.  Fr.  Sarasin  (1916- 
1922,  210)  found  in  that  specimen  an  angle  of  frontal 
declination  of  48°,  which  curiously  enough  coincides  with 
that  of  the  Santa  Barbara  males.  The  same  author 
gives  a  European  average  of  49.5°,  which  as  such  demon- 
strates the  predominance  of  the  European  frontal  angle, 
although  the  Haida  female  average  reached  as  high  as 
50.4°.  An  obvious  difference  was  noted  in  seven  Chim- 
panzee skulls  with  an  average  of  35°. 


50  SANTA    BARBARA 

The  impression  of  low  frontal  vaulting,  as  mentioned 
above,  is  borne  out  by  the  measurements.  The  median- 
sagittal  frontal  index  amounts  to  91+  in  skulls  B,  D, 
and  E,  and  92.1  in  skull  C,  expressing  well-marked 
flatness  of  the  frontal  vault.  Drawing  the  line  at  90 
between  orthometopism  and  chamasmetopism,  our  skulls 
are  seen  to  be  chamaemetopic,  and  the  female  more  so 
than  the  males.  The  indices  mark  a  condition  of  flat- 
ness which  exceeds  all  the  racial  averages  of  Martin's 
(1914,  765)  table,  and  which  occur  there  between  the 
figures  87.1  and  89.1.  Their  indices  exceed  even  the 
highest  individual  indices  of  the  Haida  at  90.8  and  89.7, 
and  of  the  Eskimo  at  90.5  and  91.1  in  the  two  sexes, 
while  the  San  Miguel  Island  skulls  comprise  individual 
indices  as  high  as  96.8  in  the  males  and  91.2  in  the 
females,  which  latter  is  level  with  the  Santa  Barbara 
males.  Astonishing  again  is  the  well-curved  forehead 
in  the  Neandertaloids  at  87,  conforming  with  the 
European  average.  The  Chimpanzee  skulls  also,  at 
89.5,  have  better  vaulted  frontals.  These  conditions 
are  likewise  expressible  by  the  angle  of  frontal  curvature 
which  is  formed  by  two  lines  extending  from  the  point  of 
highest  elevation  of  the  median-sagittal  frontal  curve 
above  its  chord  (frontal  acrion  [mini],  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  parietal  and  occipital  acria)  to  the  nasion  and 
bregma  respectively.  Depending  somewhat  on  the 
length  of  the  chord,  the  angle  nevertheless  is  expressive 
of  the  frontal  curvature  in  such  a  way  that  the  greater 
angle  indicates  the  lesser  vaulting,  and  vice  versa.  Our 
specimens  B  and  C  present  angles  of  140°  each,  while  E 
rises  to  142°,  but  D  attains  to  only  135°.     Comparing 


CRANIOLOGY  51 

these  figures  (see  table)  with  those  given  by  R.  Martin 
(1914,  766),  it  b-  immediately  observed  that  the  Santa 
Barbara  skulls  range  with  the  Neandertal  skull.  Com- 
pared with  the  averages  given  for  Alsatians  and  Aus- 
tralians, Neandertal,  as  well  as  our  skulls  shows  a 
distinctly  flatter  forehead. 

The  glabella-projection  is  only  mildly  developed. 
As  the  highest  points  of  the  glabellar  curves  do  not  in 
anterior  projection  exceed  the  nasion  in  the  properly 
oriented  skulls  (ear-eye  plane),  Mollis  on*  s  (1908,  575) 
index  of  glabella-projection  in  advance  of  the  nasion- 
vertical  and  glabella-height  above  the  nasion-horizontal 
was  not  applicable.  Thus  another  method  based  on 
absolute  measurements  had  to  be  resorted  to.  The 
most  reliable  of  several  methods  that  offered  themselves 
seemed  to  be  that  proposed  by  Fr.  Sarasin  (p.  211), 
who  computed  an  index  from  the  glabellar  arc  and  chord, 
the  latter  marking  the  distance  between  the  nasion  and 
supraglabellare,  i.e.,  the  deepest  point  between  the 
fronto-glabellar  and  fronto-cerebral  median-sagittal 
curves.  The  indices  derived  from  the  absolute  measure- 
ments for  the  glabellar  arc  and  chord  differing  1-2  mm. 
in  the  individual  skulls,  are  in  B  and  C  95.8  and  96.0, 
and  in  D  and  E  92.0  and  92.3.  Although  these  indices 
are  indicative  of  only  slight  bulging,  Fr.  Sarasin  gives 
an  average  for  European  men  of  98,  signifying  a  still 
less  vaulted  glabella  than  that  of  the  Santa  Barbara. 
His  New-Caledonian  men  yielded  a  markedly  lower 
average  of  only  91.1  in  illustration  of  strong  glabellar 
vaulting,  at  a  variation  of  82.8-97.8,  but  a  female  one 
of  97.2,   ranging  92.2-100.0.     For  further   comparison 


52 


SANTA   BARBARA 


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CRANIO  LOGY  53 

Fr.  Sarasin's  findings  upon  Neandertaloid  crania  may 
be  given,  namely,  80-83,  and  it  is  furthermore  seen  that 
his  lowest  New-Caledonian  male  of  82.8  fits  with  those. 
The  glabellar  protrusion  is  naturally  greatest  in  a  series 
of  Chimpanzee  skulls  at  an  average  of  78.1  from  a  range 
of  70.1-81.8. 

In  order  to  show  some  of  these  conditions  in  a  graphic 
way,  the  frontal  outlines  of  a  European  and  the  Neander- 
tal  calotte  have  been  superposed  in  fig.  9,  a,  upon  that 
of  our  skull  B.  They  are  oriented  on  the  ear-eye  plane 
at  their  individual  angles  of  frontal  declination.  The 
Neandertal  outline  was  approximately  oriented  on  the 
ear-eye  plane  in  such  a  way  that  in  adjustment  with  the 
orientation  of  skull  B,  the  angular  difference  between  this 
skull's  ear-eye  and  nasion-inion  lines  (which  latter  is 
the  line  of  orientation  of  the  Neandertal  calotte!)  was 
subtracted  from  the  frontal  angle  of  the  Neandertal. 
The  result  is  an  angle  of  30°.  This  procedure  is  justified 
only  in  this  particular  case  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
frontal  angle  of  B  represents  in  a  way  an  average  con- 
dition of  frontal  angularity;  it  is  by  no  means  supposed 
to  be  final.  In  b  of  the  same  figure  the  same  three  out- 
lines as  in  a  are  again  superposed,  the  frontal  chords 
reduced  to  the  length  of  that  of  B,  and  their  angles  of 
frontal  declination  adjusted  to  the  latter's  angle  of 
48°.  This  shows  to  better  advantage  the  differing 
amount  of  frontal  vaulting,  disclosing  at  the  same  time 
the  more  pronounced  one  of  the  Neandertal  forehead 
which  exceeds  even  that  of  the  European. 

The  measurements  discussed  in  connection  with  the 
frontal  bone  are  assembled  in  the  next  table. 


54 


SANTA    BARBARA 


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CRANIOLOGY 


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56 


SANTA    BARBARA 


Following  up  the  cranial  outline  posteriorly,  a  marked 
post-bregmatic  elevation  is  noticed.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  the  female  skull  and  coincidental  with  its 
higher  sagittal  frontal  index.  As  the  maximum  or  total 
cranial  height  is  rarely  identical  with  the  basion-bregma 
height,  it  is  quite  natural  that  the  highest  point  of  the 
cranial  vault,  the  vertex,  falls  behind  the  bregma  also 
in  European  skulls.     But  pronounced  cases  may  duly 

a 


Fig.   10. — Post-bregmatic      elevation.      Superposition     of     outlines:     a. 

Santa  Barbara  B  (cf); Santa  Barbara  C  (9);  ......  . 

Santa   Barbara   E    (c?).     b. Santa   Barbara     C    (9); 

Swabian  (No.  4555,  A.  M.  N.  H.); Senoi  (Martin  1905); 

Ainu  (No.  1634,  A.  M.  N.  H.).  e — e',  parallel  to  ear-eye  plane  through  b, 
bregma.     (§  natural  size.) 

be  signified  as  morphologically  inferior,  especially  if 
accompanied  by  low  vaulting  of  the  forehead  as  in  our 
skulls,  which  again  is  commensurate  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  frontal  brain.  A  comparative  demonstration 
of  these  conditions  has  been  attempted  in  fig.  10,  a,  b, 
where  the  horizontal  e-e'  is  a  parallel  to  the  ear-eye  plane 
laid  through  the  bregma.  In  a  the  differences  of  post- 
bregmatic  elevation  are  shown  in  our  three  skulls,   C 


CRANIOLOGY  57 

exceeding  B  and  E,  and  amounting  to  5  mm.  as  against 
2  mm.  and  4  mm.,  and  occurring  3  cm.  behind  the  bregma 
in  C  and  E,  and  2  cm.  in  B.  In  b,  the  parietal  outlines 
of  a  Senoi,  a  Swabian,  and  an  Aino  are  seen  superposed 
upon  that  of  C,  which  represents  the  highest  postbreg- 
matic  elevation.  This  racial  order  of  individual  values 
is,  of  course,  fortuitous.  It  is  of  interest,  however,  that 
the  outline  of  highest  post-bregmatic  elevation  coincides 
with  low,  and  that  of  least  elevation  with  high,  frontal 
vaulting. 

The  parietal  angle  between  the  bregma-lambda  line 
and  a  parallel  to  the  ear-eye  plane  passing  through  the 
lambda  is  not  affected  by  the  post-bregmatic  elevation, 
since  its  variation  depends  on  quite  different  factors, 
such  as  the  position  of  the  bregma  and  lambda,  and  post- 
bregmatic  extension  of  the  skull.  The  angles  are  fairly 
identical  at  30°  in  the  male  B,  and  29°  in  the  female  C, 
but  it  drops  to  20°  in  E,  owing  to  the  comparatively 
shorter  parietal  arc  which  is  compensated  by  an  occipi- 
tal arc  of  considerable  length.  The  first  two  values 
conform  exactly  with  the  averages  of  the  Western 
Eskimo.  The  Haida,  on  the  other  hand,  have  slightly 
lower  averages  of  27°  in  both  sexes,  resulting  quite  prob- 
ably from  their  tendency  toward  longheadedness. 

The  sagittal  parietal  vaulting  is  well  developed  and 
illustrates,  with  indices  of  89.2,  86.5,  87.8,  and  91.4 
for  skulls  B,  C,  D,  and  E,  the  variable  conditions  gen- 
erally met  in  Indian  skulls.  The  higher  male  indices 
indicating  a  slightly  flatter  bend  seem  to  be  likewise  a 
generally  prevailing  condition,  which  is  corroborated  by 
the  Haida  and  Eskimo  indices  in  the  subjoined  table. 


58 


SANTA    BARBARA 


where  the  factors  underlying  the  sagittal  parietal  index 
also  are  listed.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  averages  for 
the  parietal  arcs  of  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls,  as  well  as 
of  the  groups  mentioned  there,  present  values  near  120 
mm.  This  is  in  conformity  with  the  average  value  for 
the  median-sagittal  parietal  arc  in  brachycrany  which 
R.  Martin  (1914,  747)  gives  as  122  mm.,  while  that  of 
dolichocrany  lies  at  130  mm. 


OS  PARIETALE 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

Median-sagittal 

bregma- 

arc 
mm. 

chord 
mm. 

chord- 100 
arc 

lambda 

on 

ear-eye 

plane 

Santa  Barbara 
B(c?) 

C(9) 

CD  <?) 

E(c7) 

Haida  (cf) 

p... 

Averages<  Q 

Eskimo 
(Western) 

fcf-... 
Averages<  g 

120 

126 
123 
105 

119.6 
(103-134) 

119.8 
(115-131) 

121.5 
(107-139) 

117.7 
(110-131) 

107 

109 

108 

96 

107.7 
(  94-120) 

105.8 
(101-115) 

108.4 
(  98-117) 

104.7 
(  98-115) 

89.2 
86.5 
87.8 
91.4 

89.9 

(83.1-92.5) 
88  1 
(86^4-90.4) 

89.3 
(81.3-92.9) 

88.9 
(86.5-90.3) 

30° 
30° 

20° 

27.4° 
(20-38) 

27.8° 
(23-33) 

30.2° 

(24-38) 

29.5° 

(27-38) 

What  was  said  with  respect  to  the  median-sagittal 
parietal  vaulting  does  not  hold  true  for  the  occipital  one. 
The  higher  indices  here,  indicating  lesser  curvature,  are 


CRANIOLOGY  59 

those  of  the  females.  Skull  C  (  9 )  has  a  median-sagittal 
occipital  index  of  87.0,  while  the  corresponding  indices 
of  B  ( d1)  and  E  ( c?)  are  83.3  and  84.7.  But  the  remark- 
able fact  about  the  entire  posterior  outline  (bregma- 
opisthion)  in  Santa  Barbara  specimens  B  and  C,  less  so 
in  E,  is  the  almost  semicircular  bulging  with  hardly  any 
interruption  at  the  lambda  or  inion.  Martin  (1905, 
465-466)  describes  this  condition  as  characteristic  of  the 
Senoi  and  as  depending  partly  upon  the  position,  i.e., 
declination  of  the  planum  nuchale  of  the  occipital  bone, 
as  indicated  by  an  angle  between  the  opisthion-inion 
line  and  the  ear-eye  plane,  or  rather  the  parallel  of  the 
latter  passing  through  the  inion.  The  r.ngle  with  the 
inion  for  its  vertex  opens  toward  the  cranial  cavity  if 
measured  below  the  inion-parallel  of  the  ear-eye  plane. 
The  compensatory  angle  lies  above  it  and  opens  out- 
wardly. It  is  clear  that  a  more  erect  position  of  the 
planum,  as  expressed  by  a  greater  angle,  is  more  con- 
ducive of  a  perfect  occipital  rounding  than  the  opposite, 
which,  however,  is  easily  disturbed  by  other  morphologi- 
cal features,  like  the  protrusion  of  the  upper  occipital 
squama,  and,  as  Martin  correctly  points  out,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  protuberantia  occipitalis  externa.  His 
listings  of  the  nuchal  angle  are  quite  instructive  and  are 
presented  on  page  60. 

The  nuchal  angles  of  23°  in  the  Santa  Barbara  B  skull, 
and  34°  in  the  C,  and  even  38°  in  E,  are  comparable  with 
Martin's  highest  figures,  and  thus  justify  what  has  been 
said  about  their  significance  with  regard  to  the  occipital 
curve.  The  nuchal  angle  in  a  way  bears  on  the  interoc- 
cipital  angle  opisthion-inion-lambda  in  such  manner  that 


60  SANTA    BARBARA 


Senoi  cf 

Senoi  9  . 

Usa  cf . 

Disentis  cf . 

Timorese  cf . 

Vedda  cf . 

Vedda  9  . 

Hohberg  cf . 


NUCHAL  ANGLE 


36° 
30° 
28° 
23° 
21° 
18° 
17° 
17° 


in  our  cases  the  higher  and  lower  figures  appear  to  be 
correlated,  23°  to  124°,  34°  to  128°,  and  38°  to  127°. 
Also  another  correlation  is  to  be  noticed  between  the 
nuchal  angles  and  those  of  occipital  declination  as  given 
by  the  angle  between  the  opisthion-lambda  line  and  the 
ear-eye  plane.  The  more  erect  position  of  both  the 
opisthion-inion  and  opisthion-lambda  lines  in  C  and  E 
finds  its  expression  through  a  greater  nuchal  angle  of 
34°  and  a  smaller  occipital  angle  of  118°  in  the  former, 
and  still  more  significant  in  the  latter  of  38°  and  109°, 
as  against  23°  and  122°  for  the  same  angles  in  B. 
Another  correlation  seems  to  exist  between  these  angles 
and  the  median-sagittal  index,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
next  table.  The  stronger  occipital  vaulting  appears 
to  be  characteristic  of  the  male  skull,  which  seems  to 
be  the  prevailing  condition  among  the  sexes  of  the 
Indians.  The  variability  of  the  averages  of  this  index 
is  very  limited,  Martin  (1914,  738)  listing  them  for  a 
number  of  human  groups  between  81.2  and  83.6. 
Among  our  own  observations  were  male  and  female 
averages  from  undeformed  skulls  of  the  North  Pacific 


CRANIOLOGY 


61 


Coast  at  82.3  and  83.8;  the  Haida  at  81.8  and  84.1,  the 
Eskimo  at  83.8  and  84.0.  But  very  considerable  is  the 
individual  variation  which,  for  instance,  amounts  to 
77.4-91.2  and  80.8-88.7  in  the  first-named  group. 

The  occipital  measurements  discussed  in  the  imme- 
diately preceding  paragraphs  are  listed  in  the  following 
table: 


OS  OCCIPITALE 

Me 

dian-sagittal 

Angles  with 
ear-eye  plane 

s 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

mm. 

T3 

O 

o 

mm. 

o 
o 

■h 
o 
(J 

o 

C<3 

s3 

£ 

c- 
.2.2* 
13  "o 

IT.    O 

'ft1"' 

o 

a 
o 

'.£ 

£^ 

$3 

o 

.213 

.2  <-> 
-^  2 
.a-S 

-J 

Santa  Barbara 

B    (<?) 

120 
100 
124 

100 

87 

105 

83.3 

87.0 
84.7 

122° 
118° 
109° 

23° 
34° 
38° 

124° 

C   (9) 

128° 

E   (c?) 

127° 

Haida 

& 

122 

100.2 

81.8 

117.6° 

— 

123.1° 

Averages  < 

9 

(108- 
140) 
111.7 

(92- 
113) 
93.9 

(77.4- 
91.2) 
84.1 

(105- 

131) 

117.9° 

(115- 
134) 
122.8 

Eskimo 

c 

(106- 

120) 

(90- 

97) 

(80.8- 
88.7) 

(113- 

124) 

(96- 
133) 

fc? 

116.2 

97.2 

83.8 

120.7° 

— 

127.9° 

Averages  - 

9 

(111- 
126) 
114.4 

(86- 
110) 
96.8 

(78.2- 
88.6) 
84.0 

(111- 

131) 

118.6° 

(115- 

136) 

129.2° 

I 

(106- 
123) 

(88- 
103) 

(77.6- 
88.6) 

(114- 
126) 

(119- 
140) 

62  SANTA   BARBARA 

The  more  upright  position  of  the  planum  nuchale  as 
expressed  by  a  higher  nuchal  angle  may  be  correlated 
with  the  phylogenetic  downward  progression  of  the 
opisthion,  and  furthermore  with  the  increasing  foramen 
magnum  angle.  Formed  by  the  basion-opisthion  line 
and  a  parallel  to  the  ear-eye  plane  laid  through  the 
basion,  this  angle  expresses  advanced  morphological 
conditions  if  situated  below  that  parallel  and  marked 
minus,  the  basion  being  the  vertex.  Its  situation  above 
the  parallel  is  marked  plus,  and  signifies  more  primitive 
stages  as  found  in  the  anthropoid  apes  and  occasionally 
in   man.     The   Santa   Barbara   skulls   have   angles   of 

—  8°  each  in  B  and  C,  and  thus  represent  a  higher  phylo- 
genetic stage.  In  skull  E,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
basion-opisthion  line  coincides  with  the  ear-eye  parallel, 
indicating  a  neutral  state  between  the  more  primitive 
and  advanced  stages  of  the  foramen  magnum  declina- 
tion. Compared  with  the  San  Miguel  Island  series, 
the  averages  of  the  latter  are  found  to  be  still  more  pro- 
gressive, with  —9.4°  in  the  males  and  —13.2°  in  the 
females.  In  spite  of  this,  the  variability  is  quite  pro- 
nounced in  that  series,  affording  ranges  of  +3°  to  —21°, 
and  —5°  to  —22°  in  the  two  sexes. 

The  writer's  observations  on  a  series  of  eighty  Chinook 
skulls  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History  may 
be  of  interest  in  this  connection  (Oetteking  1924).  It  is 
recalled  that  the  Chinook  practised  excessive  antero- 
posterior head  deformation.  The  averages  of  foramen 
magnum  declination  were  found  to  be  +0.6°  in  the  males 
and  —0.5°  in  the  females.     Their  ranges,  from  +14°  to 

—  15°  in  the  former  and  from  +7°  to  —14°  in  the  latter, 


CRANIOLOGY  63 

distinctly  show  the  influence  of  deformation  by  their 
low  values  and  great  extensions. 

The  low  value  of  +7°  in  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints 
(Fr.  Sarasin  1916-1922,  195),  on  the  other  hand,  is 
directly  expressive  of  the  primitive  phyletic  stage  of  this 
specimen.  Fr.  Sarasin  (p.  195)  also  gives  a  general 
average  for  Europeans  amounting  to  —12°,  with  which 
the  San  Miguel  averages  mentioned  in  the  second  pre- 
ceding paragraph  conform. 

The  ear-eye  parallel  involved  in  the  angle  just  dis- 
cussed helps  also  to  form  the  angle  of  the  cranial  base  as 
represented  by  the  nasion-basion  line.  This  line  mea- 
sures 97  mm.  in  skulls  B  and  C,  and  101  mm.  in  E,  and  as 
the  position  of  the  nasion  above  the  ear-eye  plane  proper 
is  fairly  alike  in  the  three  skulls  (30  mm.  in  B  and  E  as 
against  29  mm.  on  C),  the  size  of  the  angles  depends  en- 
tirely on  the  infraporial  position  of  the  basion.  With  a 
basion-porion  extension  of  22  mm.  in  B,  14  mm.  in  C,  and 
26  mm.  in  E,  the  greater  cranio-basal  angle  of  33°  is  natur- 
ally found  in  the  two  male  skulls,  while  the  angle  in  the  fe- 
male skull  amounts  to  27°.  Within  the  physiological  range 
of  the  angle  under  discussion  in  series  from  different 
human  provinces  and  covering  values  from  20°  to  39°,  our 
two  angles  occupy  stations  only  slightly  removed  from  a 
medium  condition.  This  is  confirmed  by  an  examina- 
tion of  averages  which  Liithy  (1912,  35)  lists  from  26.7° 
to  29.0°,  the  extremes  being  those  of  Singhalese  and 
Australians.  Our  frequently  quoted  San  Miguel 
islanders  yielded  averages  of  30.2°  in  both  sexes,  and 
thus  range  with  Martin's  (1914,  484)  Chinese  at  30.5°. 
Considering  furthermore  the  Western  Eskimo   averages 


64 


SANTA    BARBARA 


for  the  two  sexes  of  31.6°  and  31.0°,  and  those  of  the 
Haida  of  29.9°  and  30.0°,  it  appears  that  the  peoples  of 
Mongoloid  extraction  are  possessed  of  steeper  cranial 
bases  than  the  other  human  varieties. 

In  close  relation  to  the  angular  conditions  of  the  cranial 
base  line  (nasion-basion)  stand  those  of  the  pars  basilaris 
of  the  occipital  bone. 

The  declination  of  the  pars  basilaris  measured  on  its 
underside,  the  angle  being  formed  by  the  sphenobasion- 


Fig.  11. — Schematic  representation  of  angles  at  the  cranial  base:  Z_  1, 
foramen  magnum  angle;  /  2,  angle  of  cranial  base;  /  3,  4,  angle  of  pars 
basilaris;  e — e',  parallel  to  ear-eye  plane  through  b,  basion;  n,  nasion;  o, 
opisthion;  sphba,  sphenobasion. 

basion  line  and  the  parallel  to  the  ear-eye  plane  through 
the  basion,  amounts  to  33°  in  skulls  B  and  E  and  to  only 
22°  in  C.  This  signifies,  according  to  Fr.  Sarasin's 
(1916-22,  251)  classification,  platyclin  and  hyperplaty- 
clin  states  and  illustrates  not  only  the  sex  difference 
generally  met  in  human  groups,  but  also  the  specific 
conditions  among  the  Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast  (Oet- 
teking  1924).  Moreover,  in  our  particular  case  it  is 
the  limited  infraporial  extension  of  the  cranial  height 
diameter  which  is  responsible  for  the  depressed  condition 


CRANIO LOGY 


65 


of  the  pars  basilaris  in  C,  and  consequently  its  small 
angle  of  declination. 

A  schematic  representation  of  the  angles  at  the  cranial 
base  is  given  in  fig.  11. 

The  following  table  contains  the  measurements  just 
discussed: 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (cf) 

C   (9) 

E.(cf): 

San  Miguel  island 


Averages 


La  Chapelle-aux-Saints11 


ANGLES  OF  THE  CRANIAL  EASE 


Ear-eye  plane  and  lines 


opisthion-basion 
(foramen  magnum) 


-9.4° 

(+3  to  -21°) 

—  13.2° 
(-5  to  -22°) 

+7° 


basion- 

nasion 

(cranial 

base) 


33° 

27° 
33° 

30.2° 

(25-35) 
30.2° 

(25-34) 


spheno- 

basion- 

basion 

(pars 

basilaris) 


33° 
22° 
33° 

32.0° 
(19-46) 

29.8° 
(20-38) 

14-20° 


*Fr.  Sarasin  1916-22,  195  and  253. 

Turning  now  to  the  profilation  of  the  face,  its  vertical 
projection  relative  to  the  ear-eye  plane  must  be 
considered  first.1  The  three  angles  known  as  profile 
angles  are:  (1)  the  facial  (nasion-prosthion-E') ,  (2)   the 

1  The  discussion  of  the  vertical  declination  of  the  orbit  and 
the  nasal  bones  has  been  joined  with  the  study  of  the  orbit 
and  nasal  aperture,  and  will  be  found  in  the  section  on  the 
norma  frontalis  (pages  98-99). 


66  SANTA    BARBARA 

nasal  (nasion-nasospinale-e'),  and  (3)  the  alveolar  (naso- 
spinale-prosthion-e') .  E'  and  e'  indicate  the  extensions 
of  the  ear-eye  plane  or  its  parallels  to  the  right.  The  an- 
gles themselves  may  be  identified  from  the  diagrams  of 
pis.  x-xii.  Those  of  the  Santa  Barbara  crania,  and,  for 
wider  comparison,  of  a  Pacific  Coast  tribe,  groups  from 
southern  India,  and  of  a  European  group,  are  listed  in 
the  table  on  page  67.     For  some  of  them  Flower's  index 

prosthion  to  basion-100, 

gnathicus, ; : — ; could  be  ascertained, 

nasion  to  basion 

and  at  the  bottom  the  physiological  range  for  each  angle 

and  applying  to  human  conditions  in  general  is  given. 

The  figures  show  the  typical  proportions  obtaining  in 

man:  the  nasal  angle  as  the  greatest  exceeds  the  other 

two,  and  that  of  the  alveolar  process  is  the  smallest. 

Lilthy  (1912,  39)  has  proposed  the  following  classification 

of  the  angles  of  vertical  profilation : 

Hyperprognathy x  —  69.9 

Prognathy 70.0-79.9 

Mesognathy 80 . 0  -  84 . 9 

Orthognathy 85.0-92.9 

Hyperorthognathy 93 . 0  —        x 

According  to  this  classification  the  facial  angles  of  our 
skulls  B,  C,  and  E,  are  seen  to  be  prognathous  at  77°, 
just  mesognathous  at  80°,  and  pronounced  mesognathous 
at  82°.  The  same  proportions  hold  true  for  the  nasal 
angles  at  78°  in  B,  and  84°  in  C  and  E,  which  places  the 
latter  two  skulls  close  to  orthognathy.      Quite  remark- 


CRANIOLOGY 


67 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (cf) 

C   (9) 

E.(cf). 

San  Miguel  island 


Averages<  q 

Senoi* 

& 

9 

Semangf 

& 

9 

[Veddat . . . 
Averages  I  Singhalese^ . 
[SwissJ 


General  variation  + 70-93 


VERTICAL  PROFILATION 
(EAR-EYE  PLANE) 


Angle 


facial 

nasal 

77° 

78° 

80° 

84° 

82° 

84° 

81° 

83.2° 

(72-88) 

(76-91) 

80.2° 

84.4° 

(75-89) 

(77-89) 

85° 

90° 

82° 

85° 

80° 

82° 

81° 

83° 

84.3° 

87.6° 

82.1° 

85.5° 

87.0° 

88.7° 

70-93° 

73-95° 

71° 
68° 

76° 

74.6° 
(61-91 : 

74.6° 
(62-89; 

55° 
66° 

65° 
75° 
71.6° 
69.9° 

82.4° 


49-92° 


106.3 

104.1 

96.0 

99.0 

99.7 


100.0 
98.0 
94.7 
99.2 
93.6 


"Martin  1905. 

f  Schlaginhaufen  1907. 

%  Lilthy  1912. 

able  is  the  relapse  into  the  prognathous  state  of  the 
alveolar  angle  of  71°  in  B,  and  the  hyperprognathous  of 
68°  in  C,  while  E  at  76°,  although  likewise  prognathous, 
holds  an  intermediate  position  between  the  first  two. 
Besides  the  pronounced  state  of  alveolar  hyperprogna- 
thy  in  the  female  skull,  the  other  interesting  fact  is 
revealed  that  it  coincides  in  the  same  skull  with  the  dis- 


68  SANTA    BARBARA 

tinct  superiority  of  the  facial  and  nasal  angles  over 
male  skull  B.  This  interesting  combination  in  a  similar 
way  obtains  in  the  averages  of  the  San  Miguel  series,  and 
is  fully  equaled  by  the  Senoi,  Semang,  Vedda,  and  Sing- 
halese. The  individual  figures  of  the  Senoi  and  Semang 
show  the  two  conditions  even  exaggerated,  i.e.,  a 
decidedly  stronger  alveolar  prognathism,  excepting  in 
the  Semang  woman,  and  a  more  pronounced  tendency 
toward  orthognathy  of  the  two  facial  angles,  as  com- 
pared with  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens.  The  differ- 
ences between  the  averages  of  the  Vedda  and  Singhalese 
in  each  of  the  three  angles  are,  according  to  P.  and  F. 
Sarasin  (1893,  in),  notable  from  the  standpoint  of 
a  phylogenetically  secondary  and  stronger  prognathism 
in  the  phylogenetically  younger  Singhalese.  Regard- 
ing the  alveolar  prognathism,  our  Santa  Barbara  speci- 
mens show  closer  affinity  to  the  averages  of  both  the 
latter  groups,  while  their  two  facial  angles  are  markedly 
less  orthognathous. 

The  different  findings  in  all  these  groups  are  exceeded 
by  those  of  the  Swiss,  who,  as  a  European  group,  are 
included  in  the  table  for  comparison.  With  distinctly 
orthognathous  facial  angles  they  are  seen  to  combine 
well-marked  alveolar  mesognathy  of  82.4°.  Alveolar 
orthognathy  even  of  85°  and  86°  on  an  average  obtain 
in  two  other  European  groups — the  Tyrolese  and  the 
Bavarians  {Martin  1914,  809). 

All  these  findings  gain  in  significance  under  the  con- 
sideration of  the  stations  which  they  occupy  in  the  ranges 
of  variation  at  the  bottom  of  our  table.  It  will  be  noted 
that,  with  the  exception  of  Santa  Barbara  skull  B,  most 


CRANIOLOGY  69 

of  the  facial  angles  hold  medium  or  supramedium  posi- 
tions which  is  equal  to  mesognathy  with  a  tendency 
toward  orthognathy.  The  same  cannot  be  said  of  the 
alveolar  range,  which  per  se  is  considerably  wider  than 
the  ranges  of  the  two  facial  angles.  Thus,  the  middle 
stations  in  that  range  are  still  decidedly  prognathous, 
and  only  a  few  of  our  figures  exceed  the  middle. 

In  the  last  column  of  the  preceding  table  Flower's 
gnathic  index  reaches  its  highest  values  of  106.3  and 
104.1  with  our  skulls  B  and  C,  marking  both  prognathous 
with  reference  to  the  facial  angle  and  according  to  the 
classification  of  that  index.  The  two  methods  are  thus 
seen  not  to  yield  identical  results,  as  the  angle  of  facial 
profilation  indicates  a  slightly  mesognathous  state  of  C. 
In  the  San  Miguel  series,  on  the  other  hand,  the  angle, 
as  well  as  the  index,  results  in  mesognathous  averages, 
signifying  the  conditions  prevailing  in  general  in  the 
Mongoloids.  The  other  indices  are  in  agreement  with 
the  angular  expressions,  the  other  extreme  being  repre- 
sented with  an  index  of  orthognathy  of  93.6  in  the  Swiss. 

NORMA    BASILARIS 

The  basilar  aspect  is  much  alike  in  the  skulls  from 
Santa  Barbara,  in  that  the  occipital  region  is  fairly 
of  globular  shape,  which,  however,  is  slightly  modified 
in  skull  E.  Only  the  radius  of  occipital  extension 
posterior  of  the  foramen  magnum  (opisthion)  differs 
according  to  the  individual  size  of  the  skulls  and 
measures  about  60  mm.  in  B,  45  mm.  in  C,  and  44  mm. 
in  E.     The  greatest  width  extension  of  the  skulls  in  the 


70  SANTA    BARBARA 

basilar  aspect  is  somewhat  covered  in  perspective  by 
the  supramastoidal  expansion,  the  mastoids  themselves 
slanting  mesially  only  insignificantly,  which  condition 
is  still  better  to  be  observed  in  the  occipital  norma. 

The  shape  of  the  foramen  magnum  is  almost  circular 
in  B,  but  narrows  slightly  anteriorly  in  C  and  E.  The 
circular  shape,  or  the  tendency  toward  it,  seems  to  be 
the  predominant  one  in  skulls  of  Mongoloid  extraction; 
it  occurs  in  the  San  Miguel  islanders  in  41.0%.  This  is 
likewise  expressed  by  the  length-width  index  of  the 
foramen  magnum  at  93.8  in  B,  90.9  in  C,  but  only  77.8 
in  E.  The  length  measurements  amount  to  32  mm., 
33  mm.,  and  36  mm.  in  skulls  B,  C,  and  E,  those  of  the 
width  to  30  mm.  in  B  and  C,  and  28  mm.  in  E.  Martin 
(1914,  743)  gives  physiological  ranges  of  these  two  dimen- 
sions extending  from  (25)  30-40  (43)  mm.  for  the  length 
and  from  (20)  23-38  mm.  for  the  width.  The  foramina 
of  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  are  thus  to  be  characterized 
as  submedium  in  size.  This  holds  true  also  for  the 
averages  in  the  San  Miguel  series  at  33.6  mm.  and  32.8 
mm.,  and  28.6  mm.  and  27.3  mm.,  for  the  two  dimen- 
sions and  sexes,  while  their  indices  at  84.8  and  83.2  are 
expressive  of  foramina  of  slightly  longer  shape  (37.3% 
elliptic  and  21.7%  oval).  The  range  of  variation  is 
not  very  extensive.  The  averages  in  Martin's  table 
(p.  714)  run  from  72.6  to  89.1,  and  the  sex  difference 
almost  throughout  is  expressed  by  lower  figures  for  the 
females.  A  very  low  index  in  illustration  of  a  foramen 
magnum  of  considerable  length  (46  mm.!)  is  that  of  La 
Chapelle-aux-Saints,  namely,  65.2. 


CRANIOLOGY 


71 


Some  comparative  foramen  magnum  measurements 
are  listed  in  the  following  table. 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (cf) 

C   (9) 

E.(cf). 

San  Miguel  island 

cf 

9 

La  Chapelle-aux-Saints 


FORAMEN  MAGNUM 


length 


32 
33 
36 

33.7 

(29-38) 


32.8 
(29-37; 

46 


width 


30 
30 

28 

28.6 

(24-33) 


27.3 

(24-31 ; 

30 


width- 100 
length 


93.8 
90.9 

77.8 

84.8 

[71.4- 

97.1 

(103.5)] 

83.2 

(72.7- 

93.1) 

65.2 


The  condyles  are  medium  high  and  wide,  their  angular 
position  resulting  in  intervals  of  21  mm.  in  B  and  E, 
and  19  mm.  in  C,  between  the  most  anterior  points  of 
their  articulating  surfaces.  The  articular  surface  of  the 
left  condyle  in  C  is  posteriorly  drawn  out  about  1  cm. 
around  the  circumference  of  the  foramen  magnum, 
tapering  beyond  the  fossa  condyloidea  and  ending  on  a 
roughened  ridge  which  ends  about  1  cm.  before  reaching 
the  opisthion.  The  right  condyle  is  constricted  at  its 
posterior  end  and  about  1  cm.  in  advance  of  the  fossa 
condyloidea,  the  articular  surface  thus  acquiring  a 
slipper-like  appearance.  The  canales  condyloidei  are 
above  medium  width,   circular  at  their  entrance  and 


72  SANTA    BARBARA 

approached  through  narrow  funnel-like  fossae  condyloi- 
deae,  more  so  in  the  males  than  in  the  females. 

The  canales  hypoglossi  are  of  medium  size  in  our  skulls, 
but  an  anomaly,  namely,  bipartition,  is  noticed  in  each. 
This  is  not  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  this  region,  and 
was  proclaimed  by  Kollmann  (1905,  1907)  as  a  "mani- 
festation of  the  occipital  vertebra."  In  the  tribes 
of  the  North  Pacific  Coast  not  addicted  to  artificial 
deformation,  bipartition  was  found  in  20.5%,  distrib- 
uted among  its  variable  forms  in  such  a  way  that 
4.9%  of  bipartition  occur  on  the  right,  11.5%  on  the  left 
side,  and  3.3%  on  both  sides.  The  remaining  0.8% 
accounts  for  a  case  of  left  occurrence,  while  a  canalis 
hypoglossi  is  absent  on  the  right  side.  Our  skull  B  shows 
a  complete  bipartition  on  the  right  side,  skull  C  an  incom- 
plete one  on  the  left.  The  latter  case  is  complicated  in 
such  a  way  that  from  the  medial  superior  edge  of  the 
canalis  an  osseous  spicule,  between  2  mm.  and  3  mm.  in 
length,  runs  free,  ending  free  on  a  level  with  the  plane  of 
the  medial  opening  of  the  canalis  hypoglossi.  The 
lateral  opening  is  drawn  out  posteriorly.  The  exten- 
sion, 3.5  mm.  long  and  2  mm.  broad,  is  level  with  the 
lateral  wall  of  the  right  condyle  and  forms  a  kind  of 
vestibule  to  the  funnel-like  entrance  of  the  canalis. 
Quite  singular  is  the  bipartite  formation  of  the  right 
canalis  in  skull  E,  which  does  not  represent,  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense,  a  bipartition  of  the  medial  outlet  of  the  canal. 
There  are,  on  the  contrary,  two  independent  outlets  of 
relatively  small  size,  one  at  the  base  of  the  condyle  and 
the  other  9  mm.  above  it  at  the  base  of  the  tuberculum 
jugulare.     These  two  outlets  have  a  common  entrance 


CRANIOLOGY 


73 


of  slightly  enlarged  size  at  the  usual  place  on  the  lateral 
wall  of  the  condylar  base.  It  appears  that  a  singular 
case  like  this  serves  to  support  the  "manifestation" 
theory  still  better  than  the  ordinary  bipartition.  All 
three  cases  are  depicted  in  fig.  12. 

The  jugular  foramina  show  no  anomalies  except  in 
size.  In  B  it  is  the  left  foramen  that  is  almost  twice  the 
size  of  the  right  one,  while  in  C  the  right  foramen  exceeds 
slightly  the  size  of  the  left.     An  enormous  widening  of 


Bis) 


at) 


E(6) 


Fig.  12. — Canalis  hypoglossi  in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls,  showing  different 
forms  of  bipartition.     a,  in  medial,  b  in  lateral  aspect.     (^  natural  size) 

the  right  foramen  is  noticed  in  E.  The  left  one  in  this 
skull  is  rather  compressed  and  narrow,  correlated  quite 
probably  with  the  canalis  hypoglossi  anomaly  described 
in  the  last  paragraph.  Anomalies  of  size  in  the  jugular 
foramina  are  more  or  less  the  rule  in  the  human  cranium, 
and  occur,  for  instance,  in  undeformed  Indians  of  North 
Pacific  tribes  in  such  a  way  that  in  66.4%  the  right  fora- 
men is  larger  than  the  left,  in  16.8%  the  left  larger  than 
the  right,  while  in  another  16.8%  both  are  alike  in  size. 


74  SANTA    BARBARA 

The  partes  laterales  of  the  occipital  bone  (processus 
jugulares)  are  slightly  clubbed  at  their  extreme  ends, 
thus  shielding  medially  deep  incisurae  mastoideae  in  B. 
These  are  much  more  shallow  in  C,  commensurate  with 
the  size  of  the  mastoid  processes,  but  showing  better 
developed  sulci  for  the  occipital  artery  than  in  B. 
Medium  conditions  obtain  in  E.  The  incisions  of  the 
apex  of  the  mastoids  are  more  or  less  in  evidence.  The 
styloid  processes  are  destroyed  in  the  three  skulls;  the 
styloid  foramina  are  of  medium  size. 

Of  particular  interest  are  the  high  vertically  directed 
anterior  tympanic  plates  drawn  out  into  ample  vaginae 
for  the  styloid  processes,  and  the  deep  mandibular 
(glenoid)  fossae.  The  transverse  roots  of  the  zygomatic 
process  represent  well-developed  tubercula  articularia 
in  the  two  male  skulls,  but  somewhat  weaker  ones  in  the 
female.  The  transverse  axis  of  the  tubercula  nearly 
coincides  with  the  frontal  plane  in  B.  In  C  and  E,  on 
the  other  hand,  they  slant  slightly  from  medially  for- 
ward to  laterally  backward.  This  condition  prevails  in 
the  immature  skull,  where  at  the  same  time  the  notch 
between  the  free  end  of  the  zygomatic  process  and  the 
portion  of  the  temporal  squama  from  which  it  springs  is 
rather  narrow.  During  growth,  and  as  the  masticatory 
functions  develop,  it  widens,  while  the  tuberculum  arti- 
culare,  under  the  molding  influence  of  the  mandibular 
condyles,  assumes  its  definite  appearance  and  direction. 
The  latter  conforms  in  B  and  E  to  the  direction  of  the 
fossae  mandibulares  and  will  be  described  more  explicitly 
farther  on  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  the  lower 
jaw  (see  page  130). 


CRANIOLOGY  75 

The  pars  basilaris  of  the  occipital  bone,  which  is  corre- 
lated with  the  proportions  of  the  cranial  base  in  general 
{Martin  1914,  746),  appears  to  be  more  slende;  in  female 
skull  C.  The  underside  shows  the  usual  roughened 
surface,  but  no  exceptionally  developed  muscular  ridges. 
There  is  a  well-developed  tuberculum  pharyngeum  in 
B,  and  a  weaker  one  in  C  and  E,  besides  an  indication  of 
a  fossa  pharyngea  in  advance  of  it  in  the  latter  two. 
While  the  tuberculum  is  a  fairly  regular  feature  in  the 
Indian  skull  (it  occurs  in  94.8%  in  undeformed  skulls 
from  the  North  Pacific  areas),  the  fossa  is  much  more 
rare  at  16.1%  in  the  same  series.  This  percentage  is 
in  accord  with  that  found  by  Hrdlicka  (1906,  62)  in 
California  Indians,  while  according  to  Sullivan  (1920, 
241),  "the  fossa  is  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in 
the  American  Indian  and  Eskimo."  The  latter  found 
it  in  only  3.5%,  and  its  most  frequent  occurrence  is 
"limited  to  that  area  of  North  America  which  is  or  was 
the  home  of  the  Uto-Aztecan  stock." 

There  are  irregularities  to  be  noticed  in  connection 
with  the  foramina  spinosa  and  ovalia.  The  former  are 
above  medium  size  in  B,  while  the  latter  are  long  and 
somewhat  narrow.  The  left  one,  furthermore,  is  trans- 
versely divided  in  such  a  way  that  an  anterior  small  and 
oval  division  stands  out  against  an  extensive  posterior 
one.  The  right  foramen  ovale  shows  an  indication 
toward  a  division  by  slight  projecting  ridges  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  foramen,  or,  rather,  the  canalis  of  which  the 
foramen  forms  the  outlet.  The  more  interesting 
anomaly  is  seen  in  skull  C.  Here  both  foramina  spinosa 
are  medially  open  to  the  full  depths  of  their  canales, 


76 


SANTA   BARBARA 


and  merged  with  the  canales  musculotubarii.  The 
condition  described  is  illustrated  in  fig.  13;  it  is  apparently 
very  rare,  while  merging  of  the  foramina  spinosum  and 
ovale  is  of  less  rare  occurrence.  The  foramina  in  ques- 
tion are  of  medium  size  in  E,  but  there  is  an  additional 
foramen  on  the  left  side  of  the  skull  in  advance  of  and  in 
line  with  the  foramen  ovale,  and  a  slight  indication  of 
one  on  the  left  side. 

Advancing  by  way  of  the  processus 
pterygoidei,  whose  two  laminae  are 
well  developed  and  thus  afford  deep 
pterygoid  fossae,  we  now  enter  upon 
the  description  of  the  palatine  com- 
plexes. Their  dimensions  coincide 
well  with  the  general  proportions  of 
the  configuration  in  the  basilar  view, 
but  otherwise  are  well  developed. 
The  palates  themselves  are  spacious 
and  deep,  rather  smooth,  but  with 
good-sized  spinae  palatinae,  particularly 
in  B.  The  spina  nasalis  posterior  is  nipple-shape  in  C,  its 
two  sides  continuing  into  the  broadly  curved  incisures  of 
the  palatine  plates.  These  are  narrower  but  deeper  in 
B,  forming  medially  the  sides  of  a  truncated  spina  nasalis 
of  angular  shape.  In  E  it  is  broadly  but  pointingly 
drawn  out.  The  three  shapes  as  described  in  our  three 
skulls  are  illustrated  in  fig.  14. 

In  the  three  skulls  there  are  faint  indications  of  a 
spindle-shape  torus  palatinus,  especially  in  the  female, 
which  ends  as  a  well-developed  crest  on  the  os  palatinum 
in  B  and  E,  and  as  a  narrow  "keel"  in  C.     It  appears  that 


Fig.  13. — Merging  of 
the  left  foramen  spino- 
sum and  canalis  mus- 
culotubarius  in  skull  C 
(9).  a,  foramen  spino- 
sum; b,  canalis  mus- 
culotubarius;  c,  fora- 
men ovale.  (Natural 
size.) 


CRANIOLOGY 


77 


the  torus  palatinus  occurs  with  some  regularity  in 
Indians  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast.  Accounting  for  all 
its  forms  from  a  mere  indication  to  a  strongly  developed 
torus,  the  frequency  there  was  as  high  as  78.8%  in 
undeformed  crania,  and  higher  at  that  in  females  than  in 
males. 

There  is  in  skull  C  another  noteworthy  feature,  namely, 
above  the  first  molar  of  each  side,  where  the  palatine 


Ei4) 


f\ 


Fig.  14. — Variation  in  the  shape  of  the  spina  nasalis  posterior  of  the  Santa 
Barbara  skulls:  truncated  in  B  (cf);  nipple-shape  in  C  (9);  pointed  in  E 
(cf).  The  figure  also  shows  variations  of  the  sutura  palatina  transversa. 
(|  natural  size.) 


process  flexes  into  the  somewhat  angularly  joining  alveo- 
lar process,  a  vascular  orifice  of  1.5  mm.  in  diameter. 
The  foramina  have  direct  connection  with  the  maxillary 
antrum  of  each  side,  as  the  probe  revealed,  and  prob- 
ably transmit  a  branch  of  arteria  palatina  major  (of  a. 
palatina  descendens).  As  such  they  are  of  quite  differ- 
ent significance  from  the  usual  minute  foramina  nutricia 
of  the  palate,  and  form  a  singular  feature  in  skull  C. 
Fig.  15  shows  this  anomaly  as  marked  by  x. 


78 


SANTA   BARBARA 


The  foramina  incisiva  are  of  regular,  i.e.,  medium, 
size,  and  more  long  than  broad,  and  there  are  no  traces 
of  an  incisival  suture.  The  foramina  palatina  majora  are 
slightly  above  medium  size  in  B,  smaller  in  C,  and  are 
less  sharply  edged  than  those  of  E.  The  foramina 
palatina  minora  are  of  the  usual  diminutive  size,  one  on 
the  right  and  two  on  the  left  side  each  of  B  and  C, 

t  with    the  difference, 

'  -,_v 

however,  that  they 
do  not  appear  on  the 
inferior  termination 
of  the  processus 
pyramidales,  but  are 
somewhat  removed 
from  it  on  their 
medial  sides.  The 
same  holds  true  for 
skull  E,  in  which, 
however,  there  are 
two  foramina  on 
each  side. 

Of  the  two  palatine  sutures  the  median  one  shows 
the  regular  straight  course  and  becomes  slightly  obscured 
through  the  formation  of  the  medial  crest  of  the  palatine 
bones.  The  two  parts  of  the  transverse  suture  do  not 
join  medially  in  B,  the  left  half  joining  the  median  suture 
at  a  right  angle  3  mm.  in  advance  of  the  right  half, 
which  turns  sharply  backward  before  reaching  the 
median  suture.  In  C  the  two  halves  turn  backward  and 
form  a  sharp  posteriorly  directed  triangle,  which  is  a 
rare  condition  in  Hominidae,  according  to  Martin  (1914, 


Fig.  15. — Anomalous  palatine  perforations, 
right  and  left  in  identical  places,  in  skull  C 
(  9  ),  marked  by  x.     (|  natural  size.) 


CRANIOLOGY  79 

830),  the  reverse  being  by  far  the  more  common  state. 
In  fact,  the  posteriorly  directed  triangle  was  found  in 
only  5.6%  of  the  undeformed  North  Pacific  crania,  in 
2.5%  of  those  of  the  Chinook,  but  in  9.9%  of  the  Salish. 
Martin's  highest  frequency  of  the  condition  under  dis- 
cussion is  20.8%  for  the  Eskimo.  The  more  progres- 
sive forward  bend  is  seen  in  E.  All  three  shapes  are 
illustrated  in  fig.  14. 

It  remains  to  discuss  the  part  of  most  decided  morpho- 
logical significance  in  the  palatine  complex:  the  alveolar 
process  and  the  dental  arch.  The  latter  is  paraboloid 
in  all  three  skulls,  somewhat  more  rounded  in  B,  and 
slightly  straighter  in  C  and  E.  They  thus  represent  a 
morphologically  advanced  type  as  against  the  upsiloid 
shape  in  the  anthropoid  apes  and  the  ellipsoid  in  the 
lower  apes.  All  three  types  may  occur  in  one  and  the 
same  series,  as  shown  by  their  frequency  on  the  North 
Pacific  Coast,  where  in  the  undeformed  skulls  the 
upsiloid  type  was  found  in  2.1%,  the  ellipsoid  in  9.3%, 
and  the  paraboloid  in  88.7%.  The  frequency  of  the 
first  two  types  is  somewhat  increased  in  the  Chinook  to 
6.0%  and  20.5%,  while  the  paraboloid  type  occurs  in 
73.5%,  illustrating  again  the  decided  prevalence  of  the 
latter.  As  already  indicated  by  the  individual  differ- 
ences of  the  dental  arches  in  our  three  specimens,  the 
dimensions  of  their  maxillo-alveolar  processes  likewise 
differ.  Although  of  equal  alveolar  length,  namely,  57 
mm.,  the  alveolar  breadth  of  B  measures  66  mm.,  that  of 
C  63  mm.  The  two  dimensions  are  smaller  in  E,  namely, 
50  mm.  for  the  length  and  60  mm.  for  the  breadth.  The 
indices  computed  from    these    two   measurements    are 


80  SANTA   BARBARA 

115.8,  110.5,  and  120.0  for  our  three  skulls,  rendering 
the  male  skulls  brachyuranic,  but  B  near  the  border  line 
toward  mesurany,  the  female  mesuranic  near  the  border 
line  toward  dolichurany.  Group  averages  of  the  maxillo- 
alveolar  index  range,  according  to  Martin  (1914,  82-1), 
from  108  to  126,  and  within  this  range  most  of  the  aver- 
ages are  brachyuranic  (115.0-x),  particularly  those  of 
the  Mongols  and  Mongoloids.  Australians  and  Sing- 
halese are  the  only  varieties  with  dolichuranic  means. 
The  palatal  dimensions  differ  in  the  length  measurement 
contrary  to  the  alveolar  lengths  of  B  and  C,  just 
described.  The  difference  amounts  to  3  mm.  in  favor  of 
the  male  skull,  whose  palatal  length  measures  66  mm., 
against  63  mm.  in  the  female.  The  dimensions  are 
correspondingly  smaller  in  E,  where  44  mm.  were  listed 
for  the  length  and  40  mm.  for  the  width.  The  latter 
measures  only  39  mm.  in  C,  but  43  mm.  in  B.  The 
indices  result  accordingly  in  86.0,  84.8,  and  90.9,  placing 
the  male  skulls  in  the  brachystaphylin  class  of  the  pala- 
tal index,  the  female  in  the  mesostaphylin,  but  at  the 
border  line  toward  brachystaphyliny.  The  lower  pala- 
tal index  of  C,  mesostaphylin  at  84.8,  naturally  signifies 
length-width  proportions  similar  to  those  of  the  maxillo- 
alveolar,  which  was  seen  to  be  mesuranic  at  110.5.  Both 
indices,  the  maxillo-alveolar  and  the  palatal  of  the  Santa 
Barbara  skulls,  are  expressive  of  conditions  that  prevail 
in  Mongoloid  peoples.  They  signify  well  proportioned, 
wide,  and  spacious  dimensions,  which  is  a  European 
characteristic  at  the  same  time,  and  as  such  must  be 
estimated  an  advanced  condition. 
To  the  table  of  maxillo-alveolar  and  palatal  measure- 


HUMAN  VARIETY  AND 
ANTHROPOIDS 


Santa  Barbara 

B    {<?).... 

C   (9).... 

E   {<?).... 
Haida 

& 

9 

General  range\ . 

of  variation/ 
Group  averages 


Hylobates  synd.  9 

Hylobates  agilis*. 

Orang-utan* 

& 

9 

Gorilla* 

& 

9 

Chimpanzee* 

cf 

9 


MAXILLO-ALVEOLAR  AND  PALATAL 
MEASUREMENTS 


Maxillo-alveol 

ar 

o 

M 

o 

Xi 

-a 

"""' 

-3 

CO 

a 

C 

mm. 

mm. 

J2 

57 

66 

115.8 

57 

63 

110.5 

50 

60 

120.0 

56 

66.5 

119.3 

(52- 

(61- 

(108.5- 

60) 

71) 

129.3) 

53.5 

64.5 

120.0 

(50- 

(61- 

(115.2- 

57) 

69) 

127.1) 

44-65 

50-72 

94-154 

49-57 

58-69 

108-126 

— 

— 

77.6 
(74.1- 
82 . 3 ) 

80.2 

(73.8- 
89.7) 

— 

— 

74.8 
(66.3- 

85.7) 

81.9 

(72.8- 

106.0) 

— 

— 

64.7 

(52.1- 
73.7) 

72.5 
(65.3- 

77.7) 

— 

— 

80.8 
(70.8- 
90.4) 

— 

82.0 
(68.2- 

90. 

1) 

Palatal 


50 
46 

44 

47.9 

(45- 
52) 
46.3 
(44- 
50) 


38-54 
42-50 


43 
39 
40 

43.9 
(40- 
49) 

42 
(38- 
45) 


33-48 
36-43 


Hyoblates  J 
synd. 


'<? 


19 


86.0 
84.8 
90.9 

91.3 
(76.8- 
108.0) 

88.3 
(80.4- 

97.1) 

63.6- 
94.6 


46.6 
(37.0- 

53.0) 

48.5 
(43 . 1- 

52.1) 


49.2 
(43.0- 

53.1) 

51.2 
(42.4- 

57.8) 

42.2 
(34.5- 

52.3) 

46.3 
(41.5- 

54.2) 

53.0 
(45 . 8- 

62.5) 

54.0 
(50.0- 

57.1) 


*Martin  (1914,  824,  827! 


81 


82  SANTA   BARBARA 

ments  (page  81)  the  general  individual  ranges  and  those 
of  group  averages  are  appended  in  order  to  orient  the 
quantitative  nature  of  our  specimens. 

The  anthropoids  have  been  added  to  this  table  for  the 
purpose  of  broader  comparison  in  a  morphological  feature 
of  greatest  phylogenetic  interest.  Their  indices  are  seen 
to  differ  radically  not  only  from  the  human,  but  also 
between  themselves. 

NORMA   FRONTALIS 

The  norma. frontalis,  or,  as  it  is  also  termed,  facialis, 
is  complicated  more  than  any  of  the  other  normae  by 
the  proportions  and  configuration  of  the  parts  involved. 
They  are  in  particular  those  that  help  in  shaping  the 
orbital  and  nasal  cavities,  the  zygomatic  expansion,  and 
the  alveolar  process  of  the  maxillary  bone. 

The  frontal  bone  in  the  facial  aspect  shows  in  its 
squamous  part  nothing  of  particular  interest.  The 
tubera  frontalia  of  moderate  elevation  seem  to  lie  quite 
low,  i.e.,  they  begin  to  rise  just  above  the  superciliary 
depressions,  which  latter,  although  well  marked,  are 
nevertheless  not  broad.  The  superciliary  region  itself 
shows  moderate  development.  The  arcus  superciliares 
in  B  and  E  represent  stage  a  of  Cunningham-Schwalbe's 
(see  Martin,  p.  770)  classification,  i.e.,  accounting  for  a 
margo  supraorbitalis  between  the  orbital  rim  and  the 
sharply  circumscribed  arcus  elevation.  The  latter  shows 
still  more  pronounced  forms  in  the  E  calotte.  In  C  the 
arcus  are  somewhat  wider  and  less  sharply  marked. 

The  glabella  protrusion  has  already  been  discussed 


CRANIOLOGY  83 

(page  51).  The  foramen  s.  incisura  supraorbitalis, 
known  to  be  very  variable,  is  likewise  so  in  the  Santa 
Barbara  specimens.  Presenting  two  incisures  in  B,  a 
right  foramen  and  a  left  incisure  are  seen  in  C,  D,  and  E. 
The  statistical  data  of  the  North  Pacific  tribes  revealed 
a  predominance  of  the  foramen,  which  occurred  in  the 
undeformed  skulls  in  61.4%,  while  the  frequency  of  the 
incisure  was  25.2%,  and  the  irregular  occurrence  (right 
foramen  and  left  incisure,  or  vice  versa)  amounted  to 
13.4%. 

The  incisura  frontalis  for  the  n.  frontalis,  of  a  diminu- 
tive appearance  per  se,  is  only  slightly  indicated  in  B. 
Its  total  absence  amounted  to  18.4%  in  the  series 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  The  two- 
sided  occurrence  of  an  incisure,  the  predominating  one, 
has  a  frequency  there  of  60.0%,  that  of  a  foramen  fron- 
tale  a  frequency  of  10.8%,  and  irregular  occurrence  was 
seen  in  10.8%. 

The  lateral  extension  of  the  supraorbital  portions  of 
the  frontal  bone,  i.e.,  the  zygomatic  processes  of  the 
latter,  play  an  important  part  in  the  configuration  of  the 
facial  norma.  In  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens  they 
point  laterally  somewhat  more  straight  than  usual  and 
thus  give  the  impression  of  a  more  pronounced  postor- 
bital  constriction.  These  conditions  have  already  been 
touched  on  (pages  29-30),  where  it  was  pointed  out  that 
the  minimum  frontal  width,  low  but  not  excessively  so, 
became  a  significant  factor  in  the  low  transversal  fronto- 
parietal index.  If  brought  in  proportion  to  the  upper 
facial  breadth  as  measured  between  the  two  frontomalare 
temporale  points,  the  most  laterally  situated  points  of 


84  SANTA   BARBARA 

the  zygomatico-frontal  suture,  the  significance  of  the 
minimum  frontal  width  comes  into  play  again,  together 
with  the  unusual  lateral  extension  of  the  zygomatic 
processes  of  the  frontal  bone.  The  fronto-biorbital  index 
lending  expression  to  these  conditions  amounts  to  88.9 
in  skull  B,  84.9  in  C,  89.5  in  D,  and  81.0  inE.  Taking 
Schwalbe's  (1899,  97)  index  of  90  and  higher  as  charac- 
teristic in  recent  skulls,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  Santa 
Barbara  indices  fall  below  that  mark  and  thus  join  in 
with  more  primitive  morphological  behavior.  Fr.  Sara- 
sin  (1916-1922,  202)  gives  for  Neandertaloids  an  aver- 
age of  87.65,  which  almost  coincides  with  the  index  of 
B,  but  ranges  above  that  of  C  and  E.  One  Carijo 
Indian  from  southern  Brazil,  mentioned  above  in  con- 
nection with  postorbital  constriction  (page  30),  has  as 
low  an  index  as  83.3,  which  is  even  outdone  with  an  index 
of  81.0  by  our  skull  E.  Martin  (1914,  713)  lists  averages 
of  95.7  and  94.4  for  male  and  female  Bavarians,  and  96.2 
for  Aino.  These  figures  signify  only  a  slight  diversion 
between  the  two  factors  involved.  But  it  must  be 
considered  that  the  lowest  individual  fronto-biorbital 
index  in  the  Bavarian  series  was  only  78,  while  the  other 
extreme  of  the  same  series  amounted  to  102.  The  next 
table  contains  the  measurements  last  discussed. 

The  figures  make  it  plain  that  with  the  increasing 
difference  between  the  two  measurements  involved, 
which  in  greater  part  is  due  to  the  decreasing  minimum 
frontal  width,  the  index  also  decreases. 

In  order  to  bring  out  their  characteristics,  the  left 
frontal  processus  zygomaticus  of  skulls  B  and  C  is  super- 
posed in  fig.  16,  </,  b,  upon  that  of  a  skull  from  Santa 


CRANIOLOGY 


85 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (tf).... 

C   (9).... 

(D     <?).... 

E    (tf»):,,. 

Carijo  (Brazil)  cf 


FRONTO-BIOR 

upper 

fronto- 

facial 

biorbital 

breadth 

index 

mm. 

88.9 

108 

84.9 

106 

89.5 

105 

81.0 

105 

83.3 

102 

mini- 
mum 
frontal 
width 

mm. 


96 
90 
94 

85 
85 


differ- 
ence 


12 
16 
11 
20 
17 


Cruz  island  (no.  537)  with  strongly  curved  zygomatic 
processes,  oriented  on  a  horizontal  line  through  the 
supraorbital  margins.  The  superpositions  show  the 
more  curved  process  of  the  last-named  skull  in  contra- 
distinction to  those  of  Santa  Barbara. 


Fig.  16. — Superposition  of  left  frontal  processus  zygomaticus  in  frontal 
projection  of:  a,  Santa  Barbara  B  (cf),  and  b,  Santa  Barbara  C  (9),  upon 
that  of  a  skull  from  Santa  Cruz  Island,  California  (No.  537,  M.  A.  I.),  drawn 
in  broken  lines,  h — /,  frontal  plane  line  through  supraorbital  margins  in 
ear-eye  orientation.     (|  natural  size.) 

The  nasal  process  (pars  nasalis)  of  the  frontal  bone 
is  likewise  involved  in  the  facial  configuration,  both  by 
its  length  and  its  width.  Its  absolute  height  lies  between 
the  supraorbitale,  i.e.,  the  point  of  intersection  between 
the  median-sagittal  plane   and   a  line  which   connects 


86  SANTA    BARBARA 

the  two  supraorbital  margins,  and  either  the  nasion  or  the 
infranasion  (mihi)  -1  In  our  series  of  skulls  these  distances 
amount  to  7  mm.  and  12  mm.  in  males  B  and  E,  8  mm. 
and  11  mm.  in  female  C,  and  6  mm.  and  10  mm.  in  male 
D,  the  differences  between  each  two  measurements 
accounting  for  the  distance  between  the  nasion  and  the 
infranasion.  They  are  of  course  dependent  on  the  extent 
of  the  encroachment  of  the  nasal  bones  upon  the  nasal 
process  of  the  frontal  bone  and  therewith  the  form  of  the 
naso-frontal  suture.  In  C  this  form  corresponds  to  the 
curved  one  as  described  in  a  previous  publication  (Oet- 
teking  1920),  while  that  of  B  does  not  coincide  with  any 
of  the  six  described  there.  Slanting  upward  from  both 
sides,  and  then  sloping  mesially  slightly  downward,  the 
two  sides  rise  again  to  form  a  sharp  triangle  whose  vertex 
lies  in  the  median  line.  The  whole  formation  might  be 
taken  as  a  variation  of  the  trapezoidal  form  in  the  publi- 
cation cited.  The  course  of  the  naso-frontal  suture  of 
D  is  a  curve,  and  that  of  E  a  triangle.  Our  four  cases 
are  illustrated  in  fig.  17.  They  show  in  the  frontal 
aspect  the  individual  behavior  of  the  naso-frontal  suture. 
In  each  case  an  auxiliary  line  was  drawn  for  the  deter- 
mination of  the  infranasion  measuring  point.     That  the 

1  Measuring  the  height  of  the  nasal  process  of  the  frontal 
bone  in  the  customary  way  (nasion-supraorbitale)  has  never 
quite  satisfied  the  present  writer,  for  the  reason  that  it  does 
not  account,  in  a  morphological  sense,  for  the  true  extent  of 
that  process.  He  has  for  that  reason  substituted  his  "infra- 
nasion" as  the  point  of  intersection  between  the  median- 
sagittal  plane  line  and  a  horizontal  connecting  the  two 
"maxillo-naso-frontal  points"  (Oetteking  1920,  56),  i.e.,  the 
meeting  point  of  suturae  nasofrontalis,  nasomaxillaris,  and 
maxillofrontalis. 


CRANIOLOGY 


supraorbitale-infranasale  dis- 
tance affords  a  better  means 
of  ascertaining  the  proper 
height  of  the  nasal  process  in 
the  facial  aspect  is  shown  in 
a  (San  Miguel  island,  no.  318) 
of  the  same  figure,  where  the 
infranasion  lies  on  a  level  with 
the  auxiliary  line  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
An  impairment  of  the  height 
measurement  of  the  nasal 
process  through  the  encroach- 
ment of  the  naso-frontal  suture 
upon  that  process  does  not 
occur  in  this  case. 

The  width  of  the  processus 
nasalis  can  best  be  judged  by 
the  distance  between  the  two 
maxillofrontale1  points  repre- 
senting the  so-called  anterior 
interorbital  width,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  posterior 
one  between,  either  the  dacrya 
or  the  lacrimalia.  The  anter- 
ior interorbital  width  measures 

20  mm.  in  B,  18  mm.  in  C, 

21  (?)  mm.  in  D,  and  18  mm. 

1  Point  of  intersection  between 
the  crista  lacrimalis  anterior  and 
the  sutura  maxillofrontalis. 


88  SANTA    BARBARA 

in  E.  Martin  (1914,  864-865)  gives  a  physiological 
range  of  this  measurement  of  14-30  mm.,  and  adds 
that  the  average  interorbital  width  is  greater  in 
Europeans  (21.7  mm.  in  the  Swiss)  than  in  Mongols, 
contrary  to  previous  assumption.  For  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  proportions  of  the  nasal  process,  the 
width  at  its  base  was  also  measured  and  an  index  com- 
puted from  the  two  width  measurements.  The  basal 
width  cannot  be  taken  on  a  level  with  the  supraorbital 
point  for  reasons  which  need  not  be  discussed.  The 
measuring  points  were  rather  found  at  the  deepest  recess 
of  the  supra-medial  angle  or  curve  of  the  orbit  and  which, 
with  a  little  practice,  can  easily  be  ascertained.  The 
basinasal  width,  then,  amounts  to  36  mm.  in  B,  32  mm. 
in  C,  28  mm.  in  D,  and  26  mm.  in  E.  For  comparison, 
the  table  on  page  89  contains  also  the  corresponding  meas- 
urements in  an  Eskimo  skull  from  Cape  Nome  and  in 
that  of  the  Brazilian  Carijo  already  referred  to,  both 
belonging  to  our  collection. 

Both  the  Carijo  and  the  Eskimo  basinasal  widths  range 
below  those  of  Santa  Barbara  specimens  B  and  C,  and 
as  this  is,  at  least  in  the  Eskimo,  likewise  the  case  with 
the  anterior  interorbital  width,  the  indices  of  these  two 
quantities  result  accordingly.  Thus,  while  the  two  Santa 
Barbara  indices  are  almost  alike,  the  Eskimo  index  of 
53.3,  lower  than  those,  lends  expression  to  the  smaller, 
that  of  the  Carijo,  which  is  higher  than  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding, to  the  greater  interorbital  width  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  smaller  basinasal  widths.  The  smaller  basina- 
sal widths  of  D  and  E  likewise  account  for  their  higher 
indices,  which  in  fact  are  the  highest  of  our  list. 


CR ANIOLOGY 


89 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (c?) 

C   (9) 

(D     &) 

.  E   (cf) 

Eskimo  (Cape  Nome)  cf 
Carijo  (Brazil)  cf 


PROCESSUS  NASALIS  OSSIS  FRONTIS 


gth 

width 

<D 

rf 

13 

g-s 

jo 

.2  o 

*-< 

13 

«s  b 

c  o. 

s  5 

ID    El 

c 

*ri 

a 

oi 

.-, 

a 

JO 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

12 

20 

36 

11 

18 

32 

10 

2K?) 

28 

12 

18 

26 

14 

16 

30 

10 

20 

31 

index 


o 
o 

Si 


55.6 
56.2 
75.0 
69.3 
53.3 
64.5 


The  important  part  which  the  nasal  process  of  the 
frontal  bone  plays  in  the  formation  of  the  interorbital 
septum  is  also  revealed  by  the  fact  that  the  length  of  the 
former  is  greater  in  primitive  human  varieties  than  in 
the  modern  recent  ones  (P.  and  Fr.  Sarasin  1893,  229; 
Fr.  Sarasin  1916-22,  214;  Zuckerkdndl  1877,  86).  The 
bearing  of  both  the  length  and  width  of  the  nasal  process 
on  the  configuration  of  the  orbit  might  be  expressed  by 
indices  that  bring  those  dimensions  in  proportion  to  the 
orbital  height  and  the  biorbital  width  (ektokonchion- 
ektokonchion) .  As  regards  the  orbital  height  measure- 
ment, one  would  have  to  choose  that  which  is  at  right 
angles  with  the  orbital  width  measurement  (maxillo- 
frontale-ektokonchion),    and   not    the    vertical   height, 


90 


SANTA    BARBARA 


which  does  not  account  for  the  morphological  peculiar- 
ity of  the  horizontally  slanting  orbita.  It  may  not  be 
superfluous  to  recall  the  fact  that  the  supraorbital  mea- 
suring point  of  the  length  of  the  nasal  process  coincides 
with  that  of  the  orbital  height.  The  following  table, 
in  its  first  three  numerical  columns  informs  of  the 
height  proportions,  and  in  its  second  three  of  the  width 
proportions,  between  the  nasal  process  and  the  orbita. 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 
B   (&) 

C   (9) 

E   (tf1) 

Eskimo  (Cape 

Nome)  c? 

Carijo  (Brazil)  cf 


PROCESSUS  NASALIS  AND  ORBITA 


.2  o 


c  a 


12  (7) 

11  (8) 

12  (7) 

14  (9) 

10  (5) 


34 
36 
36 

34 
33 


35.3  (20.6) 
30.6  (22.2) 
33.3   (19.4) 


41.2 
30.3 


(26.5) 
(15.2) 


3 

4 

M 

& 

533 

-a 

c  % 

£ 

0  *-> 

ei 

C  J2 

•  i-* 

<L>    l* 

^J 

Ih 

c 

O 

ni 

XI 

mm. 

mm. 

20 

102 

18 

99 

18 

98 

16 

95 

20 

95 

19.6 
18.2 
18.4 

16.8 
21.1 


The  parenthesized  figures  of  the  first  and  third  columns 
signify,  in  conjunction  with  the  infranasion-supraorbi- 
tale  length,  the  length  with  the  nasion,  and  the  indices 
in  which  it  is  involved.  Considering  that  for  the  first 
proportion  an  index  of  50.0  and  above  denotes  that  the 
nasal  process  reaches  down  to  or  below  the  level  of  hori- 


CRANIOLOGY  91 

zontal  halving  of  the  orbit,  all  the  indices  fall  short  of 
that  mark.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  be  noticed  that 
the  greater  lengths  of  the  nasal  processes  give  rise  to  the 
higher  indices,  as  shown  by  Santa  Barbara  specimen  B 
and  the  Eskimo  skull.  Similar  conditions  prevail  in 
regard  to  the  indices  in  parentheses:  although  the  higher 
index  among  the  Santa  Barbara  shifts  to  C,  the  Eskimo 
maintains  its  highest  position.  It  will  be  easily  recog- 
nized that  the  increasing  differences  between  the  infra- 
nasion  and  nasion  lengths  modify  the  indices  in  such  a 
way  as  to  be  no  longer  illustrative  of  the  true  morphologi- 
cal conditions,  which  can  lie  only  with  the  infranasion 
length.  A  comparison  of  the  indices  and  of  the  factors 
involved  in  Santa  Barbara  skull  C  and  the  Carijo  skull 
corroborates  this  statement. 

With  regard  to  the  width  index,  the  table  shows  its 
gradual  decrease  with  the  diminishing  of  both  factors 
involved,  or,  from  a  general  angle,  the  interorbito-bi- 
orbital  index  decreases  with  the  diminishing  biorbital 
width.  If,  however,  a  greater  interorbital  width  com- 
bines itself  with  a  relatively  smaller  biorbital  width, 
the  index  assumes  a  higher  figure,  as  shown  by  the  Carijo, 
whose  index  of  21.1  exceeds  the  others  noted  in  the  table. 

The  orbital  dimensions  constituting  the  orbital  index 
may  be  gathered  from  the  table  on  page  92,  in  which,  in 
order  to  facilitate  comparison,  the  lacrimale  width 
likewise  is  considered. 

The  difference  between  the  two  widths,  amounting  to 
4  mm.  and  2  mm.  in  the  three  Santa  Barbara  skulls, 
rarely  surpasses  the  higher  figure  in  any  series  of  skulls. 
Their  maxillofrontale  widths  of  41-43  mm.  fall  very 


92 


SANTA    BARBARA 


ORBITA 

width 

index 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

3 

height 

l.maxillo- 

2.1acri- 

frontale 

male 

3-100 

3-100 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

1 

2 

Santa  Barbara 

B    (&) 

43 
43 
41 

39 
39 
39 

34 
36 
36 

79.1 

83.7 
87.8 

87.2 

C   (9) 

92.3 

E   (d*) 

92.3 

Haida 

fcf  ... 

45.3 

41.3 

35.7 

78.9 

86.4 

(42-50) 

(38-45) 

(33-39) 

(70.0- 

(76.5- 

Averages< 

9  ... 

42.1 

38.8 

35.4 

86.4) 
84.1 

95.2) 
91.1 

(39-44) 

(36-40) 

(32-38) 

(76.2- 

92.3) 

(82.3- 
100.0) 

Koskimo 

frf1... 

45.1 

40.5 

39.2 

85.9 

96.6 

(43-48) 

(39-44) 

(39-42) 

(79.2- 

(86.2- 

Averages< 

9... 

43.2 

39.0 

38.7 

93.3) 
89.6 

102.5) 
99.0) 

(42-44) 

(37-41) 

(37-40) 

(84.1- 
93.0) 

(92.3- 
105.1) 

La  Chapelle-aux- 

— 

Right 

Right 

Saints 

47.5 
Left 

39.0 
Left 

46.5 

38.0 

— 

81.9 

low  in  the  physiological  range  of  that  measurement  as 
listed  with  the  series  in  our  table  and  which  covers  the 
values  of  42-50  mm.  The  lacrimale  width  naturally 
yields  similar  results.  The  width  averages  of  the  Haida 
and  Koskimo,  although  slightly  in  excess  of  our  indi- 
vidual values,  are  nevertheless  fairly  uniform  among 
themselves.     This  cannot  be  said  regarding  the  orbital 


CRANIOLOGY  93 

height,  which  is  greatest  in  the  Koskimo  with  their 
notoriously  high  orbits,  and  of  which  not  only  the  Haida 
averages  but  likewise  the  Santa  Barbara  orbits  fall  short. 
The  maxillofrontale  index  renders  skulls  B  and  C  meso- 
konchial  at  79.1  and  83.7,  and  E  hypsikonchial  at  87.8, 
while  the  three  lacrimale  indices  are  hypsikonchial  at 
87.2  for  B,  and  92.3  for  both  C  and  E.  There  seems  to 
be  indeed  a  tendency  toward  hypsikonchy  in  the  Mongo- 
loids, which  is  clearly  shown  even  by  the  more  conserva- 
tive figures  of  the  maxillofrontale  index  which  renders 
both  Koskimo  averages  hypsikonchial,  while  those  of  the 
Haida  prove  to  be  mesokonchial.  Not  so  much  by  our 
individual  Santa  Barbara  indices  as  by  the  averages  of 
our  table,  it  is  shown  that  the  female  orbit  is  more  hypsi- 
konchial than  the  male  and  that  on  account  of  the 
higher  orbit  of  the  female  in  proportion  to  the  width. 
This  condition  is  fairly  generally  met  with  in  all  the 
human  groups. 

The  orbital  index  (lacrimale)  of  La  Chapelle-aux- 
Saints  is  mesokonchial,  but  near  the  border  line  toward 
chamsekonchy  (quoted  by  Martin  1914,  858).  The 
considerable  orbital  height  of  38  mm.  is  prompted  there 
by  a  still  more  considerable  orbital  width  of  46.5  mm., 
which  bespeaks  a  very  extensive  orbital  orifice,  although 
the  orbital  index  amounts  only  to  81.9,  rendering  it 
mesokonchial  but  quite  close  to  chamaekonchy. 

In  addition  to  the  general  descriptive  marks  of  the 
orbit  and  their  quantitative  interpretation,  it  is  the 
angular  relation  toward  the  three  geometrical  planes 
which  is  of  great  importance  with  respect  to  the  con- 
figurative  significance  of  the  orbit  in  the  facial  complex. 


94 


SANTA   BARBARA 


The  relations  are  those  of  the  orbital  width  (maxillo- 
frontale-ektokonchion)  toward  the  frontal  and  horizon- 
tal planes  passing  through  the  maxillofrontale  points, 
and  that  of  the  orbital  height  toward  the  horizontal 


v 


C 


E- 


\Ot'£ 


85  °\ 


-E' 


or 

Fig.  18. — Scheme  of  (a)  frontal,  (b)  horizontal,  and  (c)  vertical  orbital 
declination  in  ear-eye  orientation  of  skull  B(c?).  / — /',  frontal  and  h — h', 
horizontal  plane  line  through  mf,  maxillofrontale;  ek,  ektokonchion;  E — E', 
ear-eye  plane  through  or,  orbitale;  ors,  orbitale  superior;  or — v,  vertical 
plane  line,     (f  natural  size.) 

plane.  It  may  not  be  superfluous  to  add  that  these  three 
relations  accounting  for  the  frontal,  horizontal,  and  sagit- 
tal declination  of  the  orbit  correspond  to  its  declination 
in  the  vertical,  frontal,  and  lateral  aspects.     The  meas- 


CRANIOLOGY 


95 


urements  were  obtained  by  means  of  H.  Virchow's 
(1915;  1918)  "prosopometer,"  an  ingeniously  constructed 
instrument  capable  of  the  minutest  application.  The 
absolute  measurements  taken  by  this  instrument  from 


.94°j 


onsr 


92°\ 


-U' 


or 

Fig.  19. — Scheme  of  orbital  declinations  of  skull  C  (  9 '. 
as  in  fig.  18.     (f  natural  size) 


The  markings  are 


the  skull  oriented  in  the  ear-eye  plane  can  easily  be  repro- 
duced upon  paper  and,  for  the  frontal  and  horizontal 
declination,  projected  upon  lines  representing  the  fron- 
tal and  horizontal  plane  lines  passing  through  the  maxil- 


96 


SANTA    BARBARA 


lofrontale  points,  while  the  vertical  declination  is  referred 
to  a  line  representing  the  ear-eye  plane.  Figs.  18-20, 
constructed  in  such  manner,  visualize  the  respective 
conditions  in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls,  which  are  more 


E- 


-OT>g 


1 96 


9f°\ 


-E> 


or 


Fig.  20. — Scheme  of  orbital  declinations  of  skull  E  (cf) .    The  markings  are 
as  in  fig.  1 8.     (|  natural  size) 


precisely  explained  by  the  legends.  However,  it  may 
here  also  be  pointed  out  that  the  broken  lines  in  the  three 
sets  of  figures  are  in  adjustment  of  differences  of  position 
in  each  pair  of  orbits  which  amount  to  1  mm.  as  to  the 


CRANIOLOGY 


97 


frontal  projection  in  both  B  and  C,  and  likewise  1  mm. 
with  reference  to  the  horizontal  orientation  in  C.  The 
latter  amounts  to  exactly  3  mm.  in  E,  i.e.,  the  right  orbit 
lies  in  horizontal  orientation  3  mm.  below  the  level  of 
the  left.  The  subjoined  table  lists  the  three  declinations 
(a-c  of  each  figure)  for  each  pair  of  orbits,  and  the  aver- 
age of  each  two.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  findings  for 
the  two  orbits  are  diverse  in  most  cases.  Comparing 
the  averages,  it  is  shown  that  the  female  skull  at  19.0° 
exceeds  in  frontal  declination  the  male  skulls  at  17.3° 


DECLINATION  OF  ORBIT 

SPECIMEN 

Frontal 

Horizontal 

Vertical 

r. 

1. 

17° 
19° 
17° 

aver. 

r. 

1. 

15° 
15° 
10° 

aver. 

r. 

88° 
94° 
96° 

1. 

85° 
92° 
94° 

aver. 

Santa  Barbara 

B    (cf) 

C   (9) 

E   (cf) 

17.5° 

19° 

19° 

17.3° 
19.0° 
18.0° 

18° 
15.5° 

12° 

16.5° 
15.3° 
11.0° 

86.5° 
93.0° 
95.0° 

and  18.0°.  Judging  from  Martin's  (1914,  819)  compara- 
tive table  of  averages,  it  appears  that  stronger  deviations 
such  as  in  the  Swiss  at  20.1°  (16-28°)  and  in  modern 
Europeans  in  general  at  20.0°  (16-24°),  stand  in  opposi- 
tion to  those  of  the  different  Mongoloid  peoples  such  as 
the  Japanese  at  14.2°  (11-18°),  the  Kalmuck  at  15.9° 
(9-23°),  as  well  as  in  the  Australian  at  16.0°  (14-20°). 
Our  three  skulls  do  not  corroborate  this  disparity,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  they  represent  individual 
values  which,  as  such,  fall  well  within  the  Mongoloid 
ranges. 


98  SANTA   BARBARA 

The  angle  of  horizontal  declination  is  an  expression 
of  the  fact  that  the  human  orbit  slants  more  or  less  from 
medially  and  above  to  laterally  and  below.  According 
to  Adachi  (cited  by  Martin  1914,  863),  the  angle  under 
discussion  is  smaller  in  the  Japanese  and  the  Mongoloids 
than  in  Europeans,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  inferior 
lateral  angle  in  the  latter  is  drawn  downward  much  more 
than  in  the  former.  Our  angles  amount  to  16.5°  in 
B,  15.3°  in  C,  and  11°  in  E,  thus  preserving  the  propor- 
tions which  as  a  rule  obtain  in  the  male  and  the  female 
skulls.  Martin  (p.  863)  gives  averages  for  Europeans  of 
16.2°  in  males  and  13.9°  in  females,  while  in  the  Japanese 
they  are  13.8°  and  11.9°  respectively.  In  this  particu- 
lar case,  then,  our  skulls  B  and  C  rather  conform  with  the 
European  averages,  while  E  falls  even  below  the  male 
average  for  the  Japanese. 

As  regards  the  vertical  declination  of  the  orbit, 
special  investigations  have  shown  that  in  general  the 
angle  in  the  male  is  greater  than  in  the  female,  and  that  in 
Europeans  it  is  greater  than  in  the  Mongoloids.  Thus, 
while  in  the  Mongoloids  the  angles  average  about  90°, 
Europeans  (Swiss)  are  listed  with  95.9°  and  96°  in  the 
two  sexes,  and  vary  from  89°  to  101°.  Our  skulls  bear 
out  this  statement  only  in  male  B  at  an  angle  of  86.5°, 
while  female  C  at  93°  and  male  E  at  95°  are  rather  high, 
although  falling  well  within  the  Mongoloid  variation 
which  Reicher  (cited  by  Martin  1914,  818)  giv.s  from 
81°  to  101°  for  Telengets. 

The  nasal  skeleton  has  already  been  mentioned  in 
the  discussion  of  the  naso-frontal  suture  which  separates 
the  processus  or  pars  nasalis  of  the  frontal  bone  from 


CRANIOLOGY  99 

the  upper  ends  of  the  nasal  bones  (page  85).  Both  the 
latter  joining  in  the  sutura  internasalis  form  the  gabled 
roof  of  the  nose,  as  shown  by  the  midorbital  horizontal 
tracings  in  ear-eye  orientation  of  fig.  21,  a-e.  Our  three 
specimens  (a-c)  show  to  an  appreciable  extent  the  angu- 
lar projection  in  advance  of  the  frontal  plane  ine  (f-f) 
passing  through  the  points  of  intersection  with  the  naso- 
maxillary sutures.  All  three  of  them  are  considerably 
exceeded  by  a  Swabian  (American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  no.  4555),  while  a  Negro  (same,  no.  6958)  falls 
markedly  short  of  them.  These  instances  serve  to 
illustrate   the   conditions   discussed,   in    three   different 

a  6  c  t/ 

r /\    ^x zN^ Lla *d=* /' 

Fig.  21. — Midorbital  outlines  of  nasal  bones  in  cranial  ear-eye  orientation. 
a — c,  Santa  Barbara  B  (cf),  C  (9),  and  E  (cf);  d,  Swabian;  e,  Negro. 
/ — /',  a  frontal  plane  line  coinciding  with  midorbital  horizontal.  (About 
§  natural  size.) 

races,  although  the  ranges  of  individual  variation  may 
be  quite  wide  at  the  same  time. 

Another  morphological  characteristic  in  the  skull  of 
the  Mongoloid  is  the  vertical  concavity  of  the  nasal 
bones  and  which  is  evenly  and  deeply  curved  in  the 
Santa  Barbara  skulls,  as  demonstrated  in  fig.  22,  a-c. 
The  Chinook  (no.  4470,  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History)  tracing  (d)  shows  a  slight  modification  in  so 
far  as  its  lower  portion  swings  outwardly  into  a  mild 
convexity.  The  tracing  in  its  entirety  represents  thus  a 
double  curve  not  too  rarely  found  in  the  Chinook.  Of 
moderate  depth  is  the  concavity  of  the  Negro  curve  (e), 
and  quite  shallow  that  of  the  Swabian  (J).    However, 


100 


SANTA   BARBARA 


the  point  of  distinction 
between  the  latter  two 
tracings  is  their  different 
projection  as  measured 
by  the  angle  of  the  nasal 
roof  between  the  nasion- 
rhinion  line  and  the  ear- 
eye  parallel  through  the 
nasion.  The  shallow- 
ness of  the  Swabian  out- 
line is  correlated  with  a 
stronger  projection  as  ex- 
pressed by  a  lesser  angle 
o.  57°  as  against  71°  in 
the  Negro  and  which  in 
the  latter  illustrates  the 
flatness  of  his  nose. 
There  is  a  much  stronger 
projection  at  43°  to  be 
noticed  in  the  Chinook, 
and  in  line  with  the 
Swabian  is  that  of  the 
Santa  Barbara  specimens. 
But  the  difference  lies 
with  their  degree  of  con- 
cavity, as  has  been 
pointed  out  above.1     It  is 

1  The  total  concavity  of 
the  nasal  bones  vertically  is 
also  noticed  in  the  human 
fossils  {Homo  m ouster iensis, 
Rhodesia) . 


CRANIOLOGY  101 

this  feature,  first  of  all,  which  furnishes  the  racial  distinc- 
tions, but,  second  in  importance,  a^o  the  amount  of  pro- 
jection. For  the  latter,  Martin  (1914,  814)  gives  a  varia- 
tion in  Caucasoids  from  43°  to  65°,  and  in  Mongoloids 
(Kalmucks,  Torgotes,  Chinese)  from  56°  to  76°. 

The  projection  of  the  nasal  contour  (angle  of  the  nasal 
roof)  is  in  a  way  influenced  by  the  profile  line,  and  it  is 
clear  that  a  more  prognathous  face  mitigates  the  impres- 
sion of  nasal  projection.  The  angle  between  the  nasal 
roof  line  and  that  of  facial  prognathism  varies  therefore 
between  the  Europeans  and  the  more  primitive  groups. 
At  a  physiological  range  of  from  1°  to  47°,  Martin 
(1914.,  815)  lists  extreme  group  means  of  34°  for  the 
Swiss  and  12.1°  for  Negroes,  while  the  Mongoloids  main- 
tain about  medial  stations.  Such  inferences  cannot  be 
fully  justified  by  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  at  24°,  19°, 
and  31°,  which  as  such  represent  only  individual  values 
within  generally  quite  extensive  ranges  of  variation. 

Coming  now  to  the  dimensions  of  the  nasal  aperture, 
it  appears  that  within  a  general  range  of  variation  of 
32-64  mm.,  the  heights  represent,  with  53  mm.  for  B, 
49  mm.  for  C,  and  48  mm.  for  E,  about  medium  condi- 
tions, which  hold  true  likewise  for  the  widths  of  24  mm. 
and  26  mm.  for  B  and  C,  and  even  21  mm.  for  E,  within 
the  width  variation  extending  from  17  mm.  to  32  mm. 
The  indices  result  accordingly,  namely,  leptorrhinic  in 
B  and  E  at  45.3  and  43.8,  but  chamaerrhinic  in  C.  While 
there  is  a  general  tendency  toward  broader  noses  in 
the  peoples  of  Mongoloid  derivation,  except  the  Eskimo 
who  are  the  classical  representatives  of  leptorrhiny, 
there  are  on  the  other  hand  Indian  groups  with  a  tend- 


102  SANTA   BARBARA 

ency  toward  narrower  noses.  Our  skulls  B  and  E  are 
examples  of  such. 

There  are  no  anomalies  to  be  noticed  in  the  nasal  bones 
of  our  specimens,  except  that  in  C  the  two  principal 
nasal  foramina  are  situated  in  the  lower  halves,  while 
as  a  rule  they  occur  rather  in  the  upper  halves.  The 
left  one  of  C  furthermore  is  removed  toward  the  naso- 
maxillary suture.  The  nasal  bones  of  C,  as  already 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  general  state  of  preser- 
vation, are  defective  at  their  interior  ends,  but  the  right 
one  is  medially  intact  and  afforded  the  complete  vertical 
outline  of  the  nasal  roof.  In  D  only  the  left  nasal  fora- 
men is  present;  in  E  the  right  one  is  of  normal  size,  while 
the  left  exists  as  a  very  tiny  opening. 

The  nasal  bones  are  of  medium  width  and  are  con- 
stricted in  their  upper  halves,  the  minimum  width  being 
8  mm.  in  skulls  B  and  C,  and  9  mm.  in  D  and  E.  Widen- 
ing in  their  lower  halves,  they  acquire  maximum  exten- 
sions of  16  mm.  in  B,  15  mm.  in  C,  and  12  mm.  each  in 
D  and  E.  The  minimum  and  maximum  widths  give 
rise  to  the  transverse  index  of  the  nasal  bones,  which  is 
50.0  in  B  and  53.3  in  C,but  75.0  each  in  D  and  E,  account- 
ing here  for  smaller  difference  between  the  sizes  of  the 
two  factors  involved.  In  the  former  they  are  indicative 
of  the"Sanduhr"  (hourglass)  shape  of  the  nasal  bones, 
which  is  typically  pronounced  in  the  Eskimo  at  an  aver- 
age of  33.7,  while  in  Europeans  the  constriction  becomes 
more  equalized  as  expressed  by  indices,  for  instance,  of 
the  Parisians  at  60.0  and  Auvergnates  at  62.7,  rising 
even  to  66.6  in  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints.  The  proportions 
of  the  nasal  bones  in  the  Anthropomorphae  are  no  less 


C  R  A  N  I  O  L  O  G  Y  103 

variable  than  those  in  the  human  skull.  Their  funda- 
mental differences  were  clearly  conceived  by  Martin 
(1914,  840)  when  he  compared  the  constriction  and  the 
lower  width  of  the  nasal  bones:  "Relatively  to  the  inter- 
orbital  width  the  nasalia  are  less  constricted  in  Hominidae 
than  in  the  Anthropomorphae,  while  relatively  to  the 
width  of  the  apertura  piriformis  their  lower  width  is 
smaller,  and  their  height  is  also  considerably  smaller." 

Of  interest  in  this  connection  also  is  the  upper  width  of 
the  nasal  bones  between  the  meeting  points  of  the  naso- 
frontal, maxillo-frontal,  and  naso-maxillary  sutures. 
In  a  study  of  the  naso-frontal  suture  in  skulls  from  San 
Miguel  island  the  writer  (Oetteking  1920,  57)  has  referred 
to  this  measurement  as  the  direct  width  of  the  naso- 
frontal suture  between  the  "maxillo-naso-frontal"  points 
(mnf).  Bringing  it  in  proportion  to  the  anterior  interor- 
bital  width,  the  indices  in  our  skulls  rise  quite  high  with 
75.0  in  B,  66.7  in  C  and  E,  but  lower  at  57.1  in  D.  In 
the  range  of  variation  of  the  San  Miguel  skulls  (35.0- 
87.5),  the  index  of  57.1  falls  beJow  the  male  average  of 
61.6,  while  the  other  two  exceed  it.  This  applies  like- 
wise to  the  female  C  as  compared  with  the  San  Miguel 
female  average  of  60.3.  But  they  illustrate,  furthermore, 
what  was  shown  there  in  the  comparative  table  (page 
105),  that  there  is  a  proportional  interdependence  between 
the  anterior  interorbital  width  and  the  upper  width  of 
the  nasal  bones. 

The  upper  (maxillo-naso-frontal)  and  the  maximum 
lower  width  of  the  nasal  bones  at  a  numerical  proportion 
of  15  mm.  to  16  mm.  in  B,  12  mm.  to  15  mm.  in  C,  and 
12  mm.  to  12  mm.  in  both  D  and  E,  give  rise  to  indices 


104  SANTA    BARBARA 

of  93.8,  80,  and  100.  This  index  below  100  appears 
to  signify  the  typical  proportion  between  the  two  dimen- 
sions under  discussion  in  the  human  skull,  although 
there  may  occasionally  be  a  coincidence  between  the 
two  measurements  or  even  an  excess  on  the  side  of  the 
upper  width,  which  would  raise  the  index  to  100  or 
more. 

The  nasal  measurements  of  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls 
are  combined  in  the  table  on  page  105. 

The  nasal  aperture  is  elegantly  shaped  in  both  skulls 
and  the  sides  sharply  edged.  This  holds  true  also  for 
the  lower  incisures  of  the  apertura  piriformis  in  C,  while 
those  of  B  and  E  are  less  sharply  marked.  As  the  mor- 
phology of  the  lower  notches  depends  on  a  number  of 
intermediating  factors,  a  short  review  of  the  conditions 
there  may  be  proffered.  The  most  significant  detail 
here  is  the  spina  nasalis  anterior,  to  a  greater  extent  the 
result  of  the  naso-alveolar  flexion  in  the  phylogenetic 
sense,  the  subsequent  formation  of  the  clivus  nasoalveo- 
laris,  and  as  such  best  developed  in  Europeans.  From 
the  spina  running  backward  and  toward  the  concha 
nasalis  inferior  on  each  side,  there  is  generally  to  be 
noticed  a  more  or  less  sharply  developed  ridge,  which  has 
been  variously  named  by  different  authors.  We  shall 
call  it,  with  Fr.  Saras  in  (1916-22,  259),  margo  nasospin- 
alis.  The  same  author's  margo  nasoalveolaris  corre- 
sponds to  the  lateral  edges  of  the  apertura  piriformis 
themselves,  which,  turning  medially,  are  (1)  either  lost 
upon  the  alveolar  process  of  the  maxillary  bone  before 
reaching  the  spina  (infantile  form),  or,  (2)  reaching  it, 
produce  a  more  or  less  broad  groove-like  depression 


CRANIOLOGY 


105 


NASAL  MEASUREMENTS 


1.  Absolute  measurements: 

a.  Anterior    interorbital    width 

(maxillofrontale  width).. 

b.  Upper  width  of  nasal  bones 

(maxillo-naso-frontal 
width) 

c.  Minimum    width    of    nasal 

bones 

d.  Maximum    width    of    nasal 

bones 

e.  Nasal  width 

f .  Nasal  height 

2.  Angles  of  nasal  roof: 

g.  Nasion-rhinion    and    ear-eye 

lines 

h.  Nasion-rhinion  and  nasion- 
prosthion  lines 

3.  Indices: 

.     b-100 

i.    

a 

b-100 

k'^T 

c-100 

L-7T 

e-100 

m-~T~" 


SANTA  BARBARA 


B(cf) 


20 

15 

8 

16 

24 
53 


C(9) 


53° 
24° 


75.0 

93.8 
50.0 
45.3 


18 

12 

8 

15 
26 
49 


61° 
19° 


66.7 

80.0 
53.3 
53.1 


(DcT) 


21 

(?) 


12 

9 

12 


57.1 
100.0 
75.0 


E(c?) 


18 


12 


12 
21 

48 


51° 
31° 


66.7 

100.0 

75.0 

43.  S 


between  the  margines  nasospinalis  and  nasoalveolaris 
(fossa  prsenasalis) ,  or,  (3)  coinciding  with  the  margo 
nasospinalis,   cause   the  uniform,   i.e.,   undifferentiated, 


106  SANTA   BARBARA 

sharp  edge  of  the  lower  notches  (anthropine  form). 
There  is  a  fourth  form  in  which  the  rims  of  the  nasal 
aperture  continue  rather  straight  upon  the  alveolar 
process,  which  results  in  broad  sagittal  (longitudinal) 
grooves  whose  bottoms  are  more  or  less  continuous  with 
the  floor  of  the  nose.  This  condition  is  considered 
truly  pithecoid,  but  occurs  also  in  the  human  varieties, 
most  frequently  in  Oceanians  and  Negroes. 

Our  skulls  differ  quite  markedly  regarding  the  develop- 
ment of  the  spina  nasalis  anterior  and  the  shape  of  the 
lower  rim  of  the  apertura  piriformis.  The  former  is 
well  marked  and  projects  horizontally  in  C  and  E, 
representing  the  oxyacanthic  condition  of  Macalister 
(.1898,  223-230),  and  which  he  characterizes  as  European. 
By  the  coinciding  naso-spinal  and  naso- alveolar  margines 
Macalister's  oxycraspedotic  form  is  produced.  It  is 
considered  the  true  anthropine  one,  which,  as  a  result  of 
the  pronounced  flexion  between  the  alveolar  process 
and  the  floor  of  the  nose,  is  to  be  considered  an  advanced 
morphological  stage.  In  B,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
spina  projects  only  slightly  and  is  illustrative  of  Macalis- 
ter's  lophacanthic  condition  as  characteristic  of  the 
Mongoloid  varieties.  The  halves  of  the  spina  as  afforded 
by  the  two  maxillary  bones  cleave  in  B,  but  give  rise  to 
well-marked  margines  nasospinales.  The  margines  naso- 
alveolares  are  also  distinct,  but  become  less  so  on 
descending  in  a  curved  way  and  reaching  the  crista 
alveolaris  media  at  about  its  middle.  The  nearly  triangu- 
lar field  thus  described  on  each  side  by  the  margines 
and  the  crista  just  mentioned  is  only  slightly  depressed, 


CRANIOLOGY  107 

but  nevertheless  is  fully  recognizable  rather  as  a  clivus 
nasoalveolaris  than  as  a  fossa  praenasalis.1 

The  pithecoid  form  of  the  lower  rim  of  the  apertura 
piriformis  is  very  rare  in  Indians  of  the  North  Pacific 
Coast,  among  whom,  in  the  undeformed  skulls,  it  occurs 
in  only  1.7%,  while  the  oxycraspedotic  or  anthropine 
form  shows  a  frequency  of  21.2%,  the  amblycraspedotic 
or  infantile  one  of  18.6%,  while  the  majority  of  58.4% 
is  possessed  of  true  fossae  prasnasales.  As  regards  the 
spina  nasalis  anterior,  there  is  in  that  group  a  preponder- 
ance of  the  lophacanthic  state  at  53.3%,  while  only  6.7% 
represent  the  oxyacanthic,  but  40.0%  the  kryptacanthic 
forms.  Although  quite  variable  in  general,  the  two  fea- 
tures under  discussion  assemble  nevertheless  the  highest 
frequencies  upon  those  forms  which  were  recognized  as 
particularly  Mongoloid  in  character. 

The  regions  lateral  of  the  nasal  aperture  are  dis- 
tinguished by  very  shallow  fossae  caninae  in  B  and  E, 
while  those  in  C  are  quite  deep.  The  appearance  of  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  maxillary  bones  depends  greatly 
upon  its  dimensions,  particularly  its  height,  the  height  of 
the  alveolar  process,  the  width  of  the  zygomatic  processes 
of  the  maxillary  bone  and  that  of  the  maxillary  process 

1  The  three  conditions  of  the  spina  nasalis  anterior  dis- 
tinguished by  Macalister  (1898,  223-230)  are:  oxyacanthic 
to  characterize  the  European  distinctly  developed  spina; 
lophacanthic,  the  Mongoloid  blunt  spina;  and  kryptacanthic, 
the  negroid  primitive  one.  The  notches  of  the  nasal  aperture 
are  either  amblycraspedotic  as  representing  the  infantile  two- 
lipped  form;  bothrocraspedotic,  the  fossa  praenasalis;  oxy- 
craspedotic, the  anthropine,  sharp-edged;  and  oxygmocraspe- 
dotic,  the  pithecoid  sulcus-like  forms. 


108  SANTA    BARBARA 

of  the  zygomatic  bone,  and  the  curve  described  by  the 
lower  edge  of  the  former,  the  so-called  crista  infrazygo- 
matica  (see  Rauber-Kopsch  1919,  v.  n,  p.  95).  This 
curve  can  be  very  shallow,  moderately  deep,  or  deep. 
The  first  state  is  a  reminiscence  of  primitive  conditions 
as  found  in  the  anthropoid  apes  and  in  the  fossil  Homi- 
nidse.  It  is  here  connected  with  an  even  anterior  maxil- 
lary surface,  the  depression  of  it,  the  so-called  fossa 
canina,  being  a  condition  which  marks  a  more  advanced 
morphological  state.  Involved  in  the  latter  are  such 
factors  as  the  progressive  stages  of  naso-alveolar  flexion, 
the  narrowing  of  the  face,  and,  in  connection  with  it,  the 
general  refinement  of  the  parts  that  participate  in  the 
facial  complex.  It  is  quite  probable,  and  in  a  number  of 
cases  directly  provable,  that  the  processes  of  organic 
and  structural  economy  are  aided  also  by  muscular  trac- 
tion in  the  production  of  modifications  of  morphological 
appearance.  Thus,  in  the  intensification  of  infrazygoma- 
tic  curving  may  also  be  involved  the  functions  of  mm. 
masse ter,  zj^gomaticus  and  quadra tus  labii  superioris. 
It  is  under  the  influence  of  these  factors  that  the  fossa 
canina  is  developed,  although,  as  shown  in  C,  it  may 
exist  at  an  appreciable  depth  in  connection  with  a  less 
deep  curve  of  the  crista  infrazygomatica.  The  latter  is 
more  pronounced  in  B  and  shows  at  the  same  time  more 
protruding  (downward)  tuberosities  at  the  points  of 
junction  of  the  zygomatic  and  maxillary  bones  in  the 
craniometrical  points  called  zygomaxillaria.  E  also 
has  a  rather  shallow  infrazygomatic  crest,  which  in  this 
case  coincides  with  a  very  shallow  fossa  canina.  The 
infrazygomatic   outlines   of    E   and    a    Chukchee   (no. 


CRANIOLOGY 


109 


3848,  American  Museum  of  Natural  History)  are  pre- 
sented in  fig.  23  to  show  the  deep  infrazygomatic  curve 
in  the  latter  and  the  shallow  one  in  the  former. 


Fig.  23. — Two  aspects  of  crista  infrazygomatica:  deeply  curved  in  a 
(no.  3848,  Chukchee  d\  A.  M.  N.  H.),  and  very  shallow  in  b  (Santa  Barbara 
E  (d1).     (About  f  natural  size.) 

The  foramina  infraorbitalia  in  the  upper  regions  of  the 
fossae  caninse  exceed  medium  size.  Between  the  foramen 
infraorbitale  and  the  lower  orbital  rim  the  sutura  infra  - 
orbitalis  is  present  on  the  left  side  of  B  and  on  both 


110 


SANTA   BARBARA 


sides  of  C,  but  there  is  no  indication  of  it  in  E.  The 
orbital  portion  of  the  suture  is  also  preserved  in  B. 
Well  known  as  a  typical  feature  in  the  Eskimo  skull,  it 
is  occasionally  found  in  other  human  varieties.  Its 
frequency  in  the  undeformed  Indian  skulls  of  the  North 
Pacific  Coast  amounts  even  to  51.9%  of  bilateral  and 
2.9%  of  unilateral  (left)  occurrence. 

As  regards  the  position  of  the  foramen  infraorbitale 
in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  corpus  maxillare,  it 
must  first  be  stated  that  both  measurements  differ  as  to 
right  and  left,  and  it  is  the  latter  which  exceeds  the 
former.  The  vertical  height  of  the  corpus  (lower  rim  of 
orbit  to  alveolar  border  at  middle  of  second  premolar), 
as  shown  in  the  following  table,  is  on  the  whole  greater 
in  B  than  in  C  and  E,  and  in  correlation  therewith  the 
distance  is  smaller  between  the  upper  rim  of  the  foramen 
infraorbitale  and  the  lower  rim  of  the  orbit. 


CORPUS  MAXILLARE 


Height  of  corpus    maxillare 
(mm.) 

Height  of  foramen 

infraorbitale   (mm. ) 

Index  of  position  of  foramen 
infraorbitale 

Upper  facial  height  (mm. ) . . 

Upper  facial  index 

Maxillo-f acial  height  index . . 


SANTA  BARBARA 


B(cf) 


right 


42 
7 
16.7 


left 


46 
8 
17.4 


72 

54.6 

61.1 


C(?) 


right 


38 

5 
13.2 


left 


E(cf) 


right 


42      38 

6 

14.5  21 


69 

53.1 
59.4 


left 


41 


19.5 


67 
50.0 

58.9 


CRANIOLOGY  111 

This  correlation  is  perfectly  clear  in  skulls  B  and  C, 

but  is  not  corroborated  by  E,  whose  maxillary  height, 

fairly  coinciding  with  the  lower  one  of  C,  has  a  foramen 

height  equaling  that  of  B.     The  index  of   position   of 

the   foramen    infraorbitale,    according    to    the    formula 

height  of  foramen  infraorbitale  ■  100  .. 

; ,  results  accordingly 

height  of  corpus  maxillare 

in  each  case. 

Another  correlation  is  worthy  of  mention  in  this  con- 
nection, namely,  that  between  the  height  of  the  maxil- 
lary corpus  and  the  general  proportion  of  the  face. 
According  to  Martin  (1914,  823),  in  euryprosopic  Swiss 
an  average  maxillary  height  of  38  mm.  was  observed, 
and  in  a  leptoprosopic  one  of  44  mm.  Similar  correla- 
tions are  likewise  to  be  stated  in  the  Santa  Barbara 
crania,  whose  maxillary  heights  diminish  with  their 
upper  facial  heights,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  preceding 
table.  Here  also  the  indices  of  the  upper  face  height 
and  that  of  the  corpus  maxillare  bear  out  this  correla- 
tion. Furthermore,  although  all  three  of  our  skulls  are 
mesenic,  they  nevertheless  show  different  stages  of 
meseny  in  proportion  to  the  quantitative  differences. 

For  a  general  estimation  and  comparison  of  facial 
size  and  proportions,  the  averages  and  ranges  of  variation 
of  undeformed  skulls  from  the  North  Pacific  Coast  are 
presented  in  the  table  on  page  112. 

The  upper  facial  height  is  seen  to  be  quite  variable  in 
our  three  skulls.  The  two  males  B  and  E  at  72  mm. 
and  67  mm.  differ  by  5  mm.;  and  between,  at  69  mm., 
falls  the  female  C.  The  latter,  with  130  mm.,  stands 
lowest  in  bizygomatic  breadth;  but  it  is  in  this  measure- 


112 


SANTA    BARBARA 


FACIAL  MEASUREMENTS  AND  INDICES 


1 .  Total  facial  height 

2 .  Upper  facial  height 

3 .  Bizygomatic  breadth 

4.  Cranial  breadth 

5.  Minimum  frontal  width 

6.  Bigonial  width  (lower  jaw). .  . 

Indices:  1  •  100 

7.  Facial:  — - — 

o 

8.  Upper  facial:  - 

9.  Transverse  cranio-  — - — 

facial:  4 

10.  Jugo-frontal:  — - — 

11.  Jugo-mandibular:  — - — 


SANTA  BARBARA 


B(cf) 


118 

72 


132 
141 

96 

97 

89.3 

54.6 
93.6 


73.5 


C(9) 


110 
69 


130 
131 

90 

96 

84.6 

53.1 
99.2 

69.2 
73.9 


E(c?) 


105 
67 


134 


134 


85 


103 


78.4 


50.0 


100.0 


63.4 


16.9 


NORTH  PACIFIC 

COAST 

(UNDEFORMED 

SKULLS) 


Averages  and 
Variation 


male 

female 

mm. 

mm. 

_ 

75.0 

70.2 

(65- 

(63- 

85) 

79) 

138.5 

129.6 

(125- 

(117- 

156) 

140) 

140.8 

136.5 

(129- 

(130- 

152) 

150) 

94.1 

91.4 

(83- 

(82- 

106) 

104) 

106.0 

98.0 

(85- 

(86- 

117) 

110) 

54.1 

54.2 

(41.4- 

(49 . 6- 

61.8) 

61.0) 

98.5 

95.3 

(90.7- 

(87.0- 

108.5) 

103.8) 

68.1 

70.6 

(59.7- 

(64 . 0- 

77.2) 

84.5) 

76.9 

(67.8- 
85.1' 


(69 
85 


9 
.9- 

8) 


ment  that  E,  with  134  mm.,  exceeds  B  at  132  mm.  If 
the  variation  in  the  undeformed  skulls  of  the  North 
Pacific  tribes  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  physical 
oscillation  in  general  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  the  Santa  Barbara  male  skulls  fall  in  facial 


CRANIOLOGY  113 

breadth  and  height  below  the  average  expressions,  while 
the  female  fairly  coincides  with  them.  Our  table  con- 
tains also  a  number  of  other  cranial  measurements  which 
have  been  discussed  elsewhere  in  this  report,  and  being 
brought  in  proportion  to  the  facial  measurements  are 
discussed  as  indices  farther  below. 

The  proportion  between  the  bizygomatic  breadth 
and  the  facial  height  (nasion-gnathion)  gives  rise  to 
indices  which  render  B  mesoprosopic  with  89.3,  but  at 
the  border  line  toward  leptoprosopy,  and  C  euryprosopic 
with  84.6,  but  in  close  proximity  to  mesoprosopy. 
E  with  78.4,  is  hypereuryprosopic,  owing  rather  to  its 
relatively  low  total  facial  height  than  to  its  more  conser- 
vative facial  (bizygomatic)  breadth.  The  upper  facial 
index  with  the  nasion-prosthion  height  is  mesenic,  but 
in  different  degrees,  and  it  is  E  which,  with  an  index  of 
50.0,  holds  the  line  between  meseny  and  euryeny — a 
reminder  of  its  hypereuryprosopic  total  facial  index. 
Likewise  in  the  upper  facial  index  the  variable  facial 
height  is  of  more  decisive  bearing  than  the  less  differing 
bizygomatic  breadth.  The  upper  facial  indices  of  our 
specimens  coincide  with  those  of  the  North  Pacific 
Coast  Indians,  whose  averages  may  be  considered  as 
representing  Mongoloid  conditions  in  general. 

The  upper  and  lower  facial  breadths  observed  in  the 
norma  frontalis,  i.e.,  the  minimum  frontal  and  the  bi- 
gonial  of  the  lower  jaw,  brought  into  proportion  with 
the  bizygomatic  bieadth,  are  expressed  in  the  jugo- 
frontal  and  jugo-mandibular  index.  As  both  breadth 
dimensions  almost  coincide  in  B,  their  indices  coincide 
likewise  with  72.7  and  73.5,  thus  indicating  an  equal 


114  SANTA    BARBARA 

upper  and  lower  constriction  of  the  facial  aspect  as 
against  the  zygomatic  expansion.  These  conditions 
turn  out  differently  in  C  on  account  of  the  bigonial 
breadth  exceeding  the  minimum  frontal  by  6  mm.,  with 
the  result  of  a  jugo-frontal  index  of  69.2  and  a  jugo- 
mandibular  one  of  73.9.  Similar  proportions,  only  much 
more  emphasized,  obtain  in  E,  on  account  of  the  mini- 
mum frontal  width  being  reduced  to  85  mm.  and  the 
bigonial  breadth  enhanced  to  103  mm.,  with  a  difference 
of  18  mm.  between  the  two.  Its  jugo-frontal  index  at 
63.4  ranges  therefore  below,  its  jugo-mandibular  index 
at  76.9  above,  those  of  B  and  C.  Diverging  proportions 
obtain  likewise  between  the  two  dimensions  in  the  North 
Pacific  Coast  tribes  of  our  table,  and  give  rise  to  diverg- 
ing indices  in  indication  of  a  greater  bigonial  as  against 
a  smaller  frontal  breadth.  This,  however,  seems  to  be 
the  prevailing  condition  in  all  the  human  groups,  the 
cause  of  which  must  be  sought  in  phylogenetic  processes 
of  brain  expansion  bearing  on  the  dimensions  of  the 
cranial  base  and  lower  jaw,  as  well  as  in  functional 
adaptations  in  connection  with  mastication. 

Of  diagnostic  interest  also  is  the  proportion  between 
the  facial  and  cranial  breadth  from  which  the  transverse 
cranio-facial  index  is  computed,  and  which  reaches 
93.6  in  B,  99.2  in  C,  and  100  in  E.  The  difference 
between  the  first  one  and  the  latter  two,  although  all 
three  are  indicative  of  greater  facial  breadth,  lies  with 
the  cranial  breadth,  which  in  C  is  10  mm.,  and  in  E  7 
mm.,  less  than  in  B.  In  the  series  from  the  North  Pacific 
Coast  the  male  exceeds  the  female  average.  Although 
the  variation  is  rather  extensive  with  regard  to  this  index. 


CRANIOLOGY  115 

those  under  discussion  nevertheless  illustrate  Mongoloid 
conditions.  These  can  even  exceed  the  mark  of  equal- 
ity (100.0)  of  the  two  dimensions  involved,  with  indi- 
vidual indices  of  108.5  in  the  males  and  103.8  in  the 
females  of  the  series  of  comparison  of  our  table,  and  with 
an  average  of  100.8  in  Eastern  Eskimo  {Oetteking  1908, 
49) ,  where  an  individual  index  of  even  111.5  was  observed. 
Although,  then,  the  cranial  breadth  is  of  decisive  influence 
in  the  outcome  of  the  cranio-facial  index,  it  is  neverthe- 
less the  bizygomatic  breadth  which  is  of  racial  signifi- 
cance and  which  is  absolutely  as  well  as  proportionately 
of  conclusive  importance. 

Regarding  the  horizontal  profilation  of  the  face,  it  is 
the  more  frontal  position  of  the  maxillary  process  of  the 
zygomatic  bone  and  of  the  zygomatic  process  of  the 
maxillary  bone  which  results  in  what  one  is  accustomed 
to  term  the  high  cheek  of  the  Mongoloid  face.  Medially 
this  condition  is  still  further  intensified  by  the  behavior 
of  the  frontal  process  of  the  maxillary  bone.  The  less 
anteriorly  concave  the  latter  is,  and  the  smaller  its 
angular  deviation  from  the  frontal  plane,  the  more  pro- 
nounced is  the  frontal  orientation  of  the  middle  face. 
A  further  characteristic  of  the  Mongoloid  face  is  the  sharp 
backward  turn  of  the  zygomatic  bone  by  which  two 
more  or  less  distinct  planes  are  produced,  an  anterior  and 
a  lateral  one,  while  in  the  Caucasian  and  Negro  skulls  the 
lateral  outline  is  more  evenly  rounded  and  considerably 
flatter.  These  racial  modifications  are  shown  in  the  trac- 
ings of  fig.  24,  which  were  taken  upon  skulls  oriented  in 
the  ear-eye  plane,  upon  the  left  side  of  the  face  slightly 
below  the  lower  orbital  rim  in  order  to  cover  all  the  parts 


116 


SANTA   BARBARA 


Fig.  24. — Midfacial  horizontal  outline  of 
a,  orang-utan;  b,  Negro;  c,  Nootka;  d — -/, 
Santa  Barbara  B  (<?),  C  (?),  E  (c?);.g, 
Swabian.  in — s,  median-sagittal  plane  line 
intersecting  in  ms  with  frontal  plane  line 
F — F'  which  coincides  with  ear -eye  plane; 
n — zt,  nasozygomatic  line  (apertura  piri- 
formis to  sutura  zygomaticotemporalis) 
intersecting  with  F — F'  line  at  point  x. 
(§  natural  size.) 


from  the  nasal  aper- 
ture to  a  point  beyond 
the  zygomatico-tem- 
poral  suture.  The 
lines  of  orientation  are 
afforded  by  a  parallel 
to  the  median-sagittal 
plane  (m-s)  intersect- 
ing with  the  zygoma- 
tico-maxillary  suture 
of  the  outlines,  which 
points  were  adjusted 
to  it,  and  the  frontal 
plane  line  (F-F'),  at 
right  angles  to  the 
former,  and  passing 
through  the  same 
points.  There  is  still 
another  line  connect- 
ing the  edge  of  the 
nasal  aperture  and  the 
point  of  intersection 
with  the  zygomatico- 
temporal suture  (n-zt), 
and  which  in  a  way 
helps  to  analyze  the 
morphological  compli- 
cation there,  as  will  be 
seen  presently.  For 
it  is  by  this  line  that 
the  appearance  of  the 


CRANIOLOGY  117 

frontal  process  of  the  maxillary  bone  in  horizontal 
cross-section  may  be  judged.  Its  point  of  intersection 
with  the  F-F'  line  is  marked  x  in  our  figure.  The 
Nootka  curve  (fig.  24,  c)  as  a  prototype  of  the  Mon- 
goloid face  shows  its  characteristics  as  pointed  out 
above:  the  anterior  portion  almost  coinciding  with  the 
frontal  plane  line,  the  sharp  turn  of  the  lateral  outline, 
and  the  remarkably  small  deviation  of  the  frontal 
process.  These  characteristics  are  only  slightly  modified 
in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  (d,  e.  /).  The  concavity 
of  the  frontal  process  here  is  seen  gradually  to  increase, 
simultaneous  with  its  anterior  aberration  medially, 
while  the  zygomatic  outlines  remain  true  to  the  Mon- 
goloid type.  In  the  Swabian  skull  (g),  the  concavity 
of  the  frontal  process  is  restricted  to  the  medial  half  of 
its  curve,  while  the  lateral  one  is  continuous  with  the 
zygomatic  outline  in  its  regular  but  little  pronounced 
bulging.  Quite  different  is  the  appearance  of  these  parts 
in  the  Negro  skull  (b),  and  still  more  so  in  that  of  the 
orang-utan  (a) .  Thus,  while  in  the  former  the  maxillary 
outline  is  practically  straight  and  hardly  set  off  against 
the  zygomatic  curve,  the  maxillary  frontal  process  of  the 
latter  forms  by  its  convexity  a  curve  of  itself  which  is 
continued  into  that  of  the  zygomatic  bone  which  then 
starts  to  form  an  individual  curve.  In  connection  with 
the  conspicuous  deviation  of  the  maxillary  outline  in  the 
Negro  skull  in  advance  of  the  frontal  plane  line,  it  must 
be  pointed  out  that  in  the  Negro  skull  it  is  rather  an 
expression  of  pronounced  vertical  profilation  of  the  Negro 
face.  The  zygomatic  curve,  as  already  mentioned,  is 
least  marked  and  flattest  in  the  European  where  the  naso- 


118  SANTA    BARBARA 

zygomatic  line  of  orientation  (ji-zt)  fairly  resolves  the 
entire  tracing  based  on  it  into  a  medial  concave  portion 
and  a  larger  lateral  convex  one.  The  gradual  removal 
of  the  intersecting  point  of  the  naso-zygomatic  and 
frontal  plane  lines  from  that  of  the  latter  and  the  median- 
sagittal  plane  line  (wis)1  is  quite  an  interesting  feature  in 
this  connection,  and  is  listed  in  figures  in  the  next  table, 
where  it  is  accounted  for  as  "naso-zygomatic  deviation." 
It  was  for  the  sake  of  comparison  with  an  anthropoid 
state  that  the  facial  outline  of  an  orang-utan  was  added 
in  fig.  24.  The  principal  point  of  difference  between  it 
and  the  human  facial  outlines  is  the  total  convexity  in 
advance  of  the  naso-zygomatic  line  of  orientation,  which 
accounts  for  the  distinctly  frontally  oriented  face  of 
the  ape. 

The  projective  width  and  length  of  the  zygomatic 
curve,  measured  between  the  ms  point  and  the  z%  point 
projected  upon  either  the  ms  or  the  F-F'  line,  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  curve  above  its  chord,  the  length  of  the  latter, 
and  the  indices  derived  therefrom,  are  listed  in  the 
table  on  page  119. 

The  projective  widths  and  lengths  do  not  differ  greatly 
in  the  Swabian  and  the  four  Indian  skulls,  while  the 
zygomatic  width  of  the  Negro  falls  short  of  them,  and  its 
length  considerably  exceeds  them.  This  excess  is  due 
in  part  to  the  conspicuous  medial  deviation  of  the  maxil- 

1  In  the  tracings  of  fig.  24  this  point  of  intersection  is 
marked  ms.  In  analogy  with  the  point  marked  zt  it  might 
have  been  called  zm  as  signifying  the  two  anatomical  parts 
joining  there.  But  since  that  symbol  as  zygomaxillare  is 
used  already  for  the  lowest  point  of  the  zygo-maxillary  suture, 
the  symbol  ms  was  resorted  to  in  our  tracings. 


CRANIOLOGY 


119 


HUMAN  VARIETY  AND 
ORANG-UTAN 


Swabiand71 .... 
Santa  Barbara 

E   (&)... 

C    (9)... 

B    (&)... 

NootkacT 

Negro  cf 


Orang-utan. 


OS  ZYGOMATICUM 


o.2 


7 

9 

14 

15 


projective 


29 

32 
30 
28 
30 
26 


i 

fcfi  o 


28 

27 
27 
29 
28 
39 


Si. 

mm. 


Index 


6     42      18       5     46     41.9  10.9 


40 

42 
41 
41 
42 

47 


96.6 

84.4 
90.0 

103.6 
93.3 

150.0 


12.5 

19.1 
17.1 
17.1 
19.1 

12.8 


*  For  markings  compare  fig.  24. 

lary  frontal  process  in  advance  of  the  frontal  plane  line, 
and  which  was  pointed  out  before  as  in  conformity  with 
the  profilation  of  the  Negro  face  (page  117).  The  index 
computed  from  the  projective  zygomatic  length  and 
width,  and  expressing  the  latter  in  percentages  of  the 
former,  is  quite  variable  among  our  Indians  and  the 
European,  in  spite  of  the  apparent  slight  disparity  of 
the  underlying  factors.  More  marked,  however,  is  the 
difference  with  the  Negro,  whose  index  of  150  expresses 
the  strongly  differing  single  dimensions  and  illustrates 
the  morphological  differences  of  the  zygomatic  bone  in 
the  facial  configuration  of  the  race.     In  opposition  to 


120  SANTA    BARBARA 

them  stands  the  orang-utan,  with  an  index  of  only 
41.9,  which  is  the  result  not  only  of  its  extreme  pro- 
jective zygomatic  width  of  42  mm.,  but  of  its  greatly 
reduced  length  of  18  mm. 

The  difference  of  horizontal  extension  or  curvature 
of  the  zygomatic  arc  finds  definite  expression  through  an 
index  which  brings  the  elevation  of  the  arc  above  its 
chord  in  proportion  to  the  length  of  the  latter.  Again 
the  lengths  differ  only  slightly  in  the  Swabian  and  the 
Indians.  However,  the  Swabian  chord  length  falls 
slightly  lower  in  opposition  to  the  Negro  and  orang- 
utan, which,  with  47  mm.  and  46  mm.,  outrange  the 
others.  More  marked  is  the  difference  in  the  height  of 
curve,  exceeding  in  the  Indians  those  of  the  other  speci- 
mens, and  aiding  in  the  production  of  the  higher  indices 
that  characterize  the  Mongoloid  condition.  The  indices 
of  the  Swabian  and  Negro  differ  only  by  the  lower  deci- 
mal above  the  index  unit  12,  while  the  orang-utan's 
index  is  only  10.9. 

Observing,  finally,  what  was  termed  the  naso-zygo- 
matic  deviation,  as  situated  in  fig.  24  between  the  points 
ms  and  x,  it  is  seen  to  increase  in  our  Indian  skulls  from 
4  mm.  to  14  mm.,  and  to  rise  in  proportion  to  the  dimin- 
ishing deviation,  in  advance  of  the  frontal  plane  line,  of 
those  parts  of  our  curves  that  trace  the  frontal  processes 
of  the  maxillary  bone.  The  Swabian,  with  6  mm.,  falls 
within  the  variation  of  our  Indian  specimens,  while  the 
Negro  exceeds  them  with  15  mm.,  and  the  orang-utan's 
deviation  likewise  amounts  to  only  6  mm.,  but  the 
morphologically  different  conditions  of  the  latter  two 
find  expression  through  other  quantitative  means  dis- 
cussed above. 


CRANIOLOGY  121 

NORMA   OCCIPITALIS 

The  norma  occipitalis  offers  less  opportunity  for 
morphological  and  metrical  description  than  any  of 
the  other  normae.  Starting  with  the  delineation  of 
the  cranial  contour,  it  corresponds  in  our  three  skulls 
to  Habere/ 's  (1898)  "house  shape.''"  The  sides  are 
nearly  vertical  in  projection,  their  greatest  expansion 
occurring  at  the  level  of  the  temporal  lines,  or,  still  more 
precisely,  Dalla  Rosa's  (1886)  "  circummuscular  zone," 
where  they  turn  rather  sharply  to  form  the  cranial  roof. 
The  latter  appears  to  be  more  rounded  off  in  the  female, 
while  in  the  males  a  flat  gable  is  formed.  The  somewhat 
irregular  shape  of  E  in  the  occipital  aspect  is  due  to  its 
plagiocephalic  cranial  condition  hinted  at  before  (pages 
12,  14, 22,  32).  The  shape  and  course  of  the  sutures  were 
discussed  on  pages  22-26.  It  may  be  pointed  out 
that  in  C  the  interparietal  apex  of  the  occipital  squama 
is  somewhat  dilated  and  squarish,  while  that  of  E  is 
more  acutely  triangular.  Observed  quite  frequently  in 
a  variety  of  shapes  in  the  skulls  from  the  North  Pacific 
Coast,  it  was  supposed  there  to  represent  an  irregular 
ossification  of  the  occipital  fontanelle.  The  upper 
squama  shows  an  even,  almost  globular,  bulging,  which 
continues  only  slightly  interrupted  into  the  lower 
squama,  still  better  to  be  noticed  in  norma  lateralis 
(pages  59,  60,  69).  This  condition  conforms  with  those 
described  by  Martin  (1905,  466)  in  the  Senoi,  and  in  both 
instances  is  due  partly  to  the  more  erect  orientation  of 
the  nuchal  planum.  The  angle  of  the  latter  is  discussed 
on   page   59   of   this   work.     The   conditions   described 


122  SANTA    BARBARA 

here  are  seen  in  outline  in  the  median-sagittal  curves 
(see  pis.  i-iii),  in  which  particularly  the  tracing  of 
B  represents  an  almost  faultness  segment  of  a  circle. 
By  this  description  it  is  already  suggested  that  the  occip- 
ital relief  of  the  planum  nuchale  is  rather  weak  The 
protuberantia  occipitalis  externa  is  very  weakly  devel- 
oped, but  there  is  a  distinct  indication  of  a  torus  occipi- 
talis, more  so  in  the  males  than  in  the  female.  A  similar 
observation  is  that  of  Koganei  (1906,  525)  on  Korean 
skulls  where  the  torus  occipitalis  occurred  eight  times 
out  of  seventeen.  Of  these,  seven  cases  were  males  and 
one  a  female.  The  transverse  bulgings  between  the 
lineas  nuchae  superiores  and  supremas  were  recognized  in 
the  undeformed  skulls  from  the  North  Pacific  Coast  in 
different  degrees  of  development  at  a  frequency  of  69.7%, 
although  only  in  0.8%  in  a  pronounced  form.  The  latter 
is  a  typical  feature  in  the  Neandertaloids,  Australians, 
and  certain  Oceanians.  But  even  the  high  occurrence 
in  the  American  native  population  must  be  considered 
a  racial  characteristic.  The  foramina  mastoidea  are,  as 
a  rule,  decidedly  variable  in  size,  number,  and  position, 
and  are  so  in  both  our  specimens.  The  left  foramen  in 
skull  B  is  of  medium  size  and  is  situated  in  its  typical 
place  in  the  occipito-mastoid  suture.  The  right  foramen, 
in  size  the  same,  is  situated  upon  the  mastoid  portion  of 
the  temporal  bone  and  removed  about  5  mm.  from  the 
suture.  The  left  foramen  in  skull  C  is  in  its  regular 
place  and  is  slightly  above  medium  size.  It  is  lacking  on 
the  right  side,  but  perhaps  is  vicariously  substituted  by 
a  smaller  opening  near  the  sutura  parietomastoidea. 
On  the  left  side  in  E  there  is  a  foramen  of  medium  size  on 


CRANIOLOGY 


123 


the  mastoid  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  while  on  the 
right  side  a  tiny  foramen  in  the  corresponding  part  and 
another  in  the  occipito-mastoidal  suture  are  in  evidence. 
Complete  absence  on  one  side  is  not  so  rare;  such 
absence  was  observed  in  5.2%  on  the  right  side  and  in 
15.5%  on  the  left  side  of  the  North  Pacific  undeformed 
skulls. 

Regarding  the  principal  dimensions  observable  in  the 
norma  occipitalis,  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  are  slightly 
broader  than  high,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following 
table. 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (tf) 

C    (9) 

E   (d1) 

North  Pacific  Coast 
(undeformed ) 

I* 

Averages^  „ 


CRANIAL  BREADTH  A.MD  HEIGHT 


breadth 

height 

1 

2 

3 

4 

M 

a 

Cd 

_ 

U 

-a 

. , 

d 

u 

o 

ed 

a 

^ 

tfi 

C 

nj 

a 

a 

u 

J2 

s 

o 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

141 

120 

97 

134 

131 

118 

97 

125 

134 

119 

102 

133 

140.8 

134.2 

(129- 

(110- 

152) 

148) 

136.5 

— 

— 

132.2 

(.130- 

(115- 

150) 

141) 

indices 


o  1 

oj 

o 

o  1 

^J 

■J 

85.1 

95.0 

95.4 

90.1 

99.3 

88.1 

95.5 

(77.8- 

106.1) 

95.6 

— 

(83 . 3- 

106.3) 

74.1 
76.9 


Presenting  medium   conditions   in   this   respect,    the 
breadth-height    indices    result  accordingly.     They  are, 


124  SANTA    BARBARA 

with  values  of  95  + ,  metriocranial  in  B  and  C,  conditions 
typical  of  the  Mongoloid  and  especially  of  the  Indian 
skull.  E,  on  the  other  hand,  is  acrocranial  at  99.3, 
resulting  from  a  smaller  cranial  breadth  than  that  of  B, 
but  having  a  cranial  height  equal  to  it.  The  breadth- 
height  indices  of  B  and  C  are  seen  to  conform  exactly 
with  those  of  the  undeformed  crania  from  the  North 
Pacific  Coast.  The  index  of  E,  however,  falls  well  into 
the  range  of  variation.  In  further  characterization  of 
the  cranial  dimensions  in  the  occipital  aspect,  the  bi- 
auricular as  well  as  the  mastoidal  breadths  were  recorded. 
The  former  differs  by  only  1  mm.  each  in  our  three  skulls, 
while  the  latter  is  identical  in  both  B  and  C,  but  is 
higher  by  5  mm.  in  E.  The  two  measurements  as  such 
differ  in  the  typical  way,  i.e.,  the  biauricular  or  breadth 
of  the  cranial  base  exceeds  the  mastoidal  breadth.  Sex 
differences  in  favor  of  the  male  skull  are  due  naturally  to 
the  differences  in  size,  and  Martin  (p.  717)  claims  that 
the  two  measurements  differ  more  in  brachycranial  than 
in  dolichocranial  skulls.  Each  two  indices  derived  from 
the  latter  two  breadths  in  proportion  to  the  cranial 
breadth  differ  in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls  on  account  of 
the  difference  in  the  latter  measurement,  which  is  even 
more  noticeable  in  E. 

LOWER  JAW 

The  lower  jaws  are  of  medium  size  and  are  well 
balanced  in  their  proportions.  Muscle  markings  are 
somewhat  more  pronounced,  although  moderately 
developed  in  the  males.  This  is  likewise  true  of  the  linear 
obliquae,  which  are  steeper  in  the  males,  forming  upon 


CRANIOLOGY  125 

the  corpus  the  familiar  swelling  and  spreading  into  a 
vertical  and  longitudinal  branch.  About  the  lower 
border  of  the  corpus  of  B  and  C  is  to  be  observed  the 
planum  platysmaticum  ending  anteriorly  and  laterally 
in  the  tubercula  mentalia,  also  tubercula  platysmatica 
according  to  H.  Virchow  (1920,  23).  These  conditions 
are  merely  indicated  in  C,  while  in  E  the  striae  platys- 
maticse  (H.  Virchow  1920,  5)  are  well  marked.  The 
basal  border  from  fore  to  aft  in  lateral  projection,  par- 
ticularly that  of  C,  forms  a  continuous  flatly  convex 
outline  without  producing  even  an  incisura  praemasse- 
terica  (M.  v.  Lenhossek,  1920,  53;  also  incisura  prae- 
muscularis  Klaatsch  1909,  107,  and  incisura  praeangularis 
Frizzi  1910,  259)  in  its  posterior  portion.  In  the  two 
males  this  incisure  is  only  faintly  indicated,  as  is  another 
below  the  mental  foramen,  and  here  more  so  in  E  than 
in  B,  but  in  general  the  lower  border  is  similar  to  that  in 
the  female.  Characteristic  of  the  outlines  in  lateral 
projection  is  the  anterior  height,  exceeding  only  slightly 
that  of  the  corpus  in  general,  and  which  is  due  in  part  to 
the  weak  chin  formation,  all  of  these  features  repeating 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  American  Indian,  and,  in  a 
wider  sense,  the  peoples  of  Mongoloid  affinity. 

The  trigonum  mentale  is  well  developed  in  B  and  E, 
but  weaker  in  C.  The  incisura  subincisiva  (Klaatsch 
1909,  112),  or  incurvatio  mandibular  anterior  (H.  Virchow 
1920,  62),  is  therefore  quite  shallow  in  C,  but  better 
marked  in  B  and  particularly  in  E.  Laterally  of  the 
trigonum,  the  fossa  mentalis  (H.  Virchow  1920,  62) 
and  its  continuation  upon  the  corpus  as  sulcus  mentalis 
(Klaatsch  1909,  112)  are  likewise  better  developed  in  B 


126  SANTA   BARBARA 

and  E.  It  is  remembered  that  the  latter  author  (1909) 
has  employed  in  connection  with  his  alveolar  plane  line 
a  chin  vertical.  The  projection  of  the  chin  in  advance, 
or  falling  short,  of  the  vertical  was  termed  by  him  posi- 
tive, neutral,  and  negative  chin.  The  misleading  latter 
term  occasioned  Frizzi's  (1910,  23)  corrective  vertical 
through  the  deepest  point  of  the  sub-incisival  incurva- 
tion. It  had  to  be  empk^ed  in  the  median-sagittal 
tracing  of  C,  which  in  Klaatsctis  method  would  be  pos- 
sessed of  a  negative  chin,  while  with  Frizzi's  corrective 
vertical  the  chin  becomes  positive.  An  angular  expres- 
sion of  chin  projection  may  be  had  by  drawing  the  chin 
tangent  from  the  incision  (Klaatsch  1909,  103),  or  infra- 
dentale,  or  katoprosthion  (H.  Virchow  1920',  14),  and 
touching  the  most  anterior  point  of  the  chin  (v.  Torok's 
"pogonion").  The  angle  formed  by  this  tangent  and 
the  alveolar  plane  line  is  the  one  sought,  but  the  present 
writer  prefers  the  angle  below  the  alveolar  plane  to  the 
one  used  by  Puccioni  (1913,  6,  13)  above  that  plane 
for  the  reason  of  more  direct  expressiveness.  Reversing 
therefore  Puccioni 's  classification  of  the  "progonic" 
angle,  the  divisions  would  read  thus: 

Progonic x  —    89° 

Orthogonic 90  -  100° 

Opisthogonic 101  —      x° 

As  indicated  in  fig.  25,  a  state  of  progony  prevails  in 
B  and  E,  even  quite  pronounced  in  the  latter  at  73°, 
while  C  is  orthogonic.  This  method  is  naturally  applic- 
able only  for  mandibles  possessed  of  a  chin  and  not  for 
the  chinless  fossil  men  and  apes.     Slight  projection  of 


CRANIOLOGY 


127 


the  chin  must  be  recognized  as  truly  Mongoloid,  which 

is  also  the  state  of  the 

American   Indian,    and 

in  this  respect  B  and  C 

are   more   typical  than 

E,  although   the   range 

of   variation   is    rather 

wide,   as   noticed  in   a 

more  cursory  survey  of 

this  feature. 

Fig.  25  shows  likewise 
the  basal  tracings  in 
alveolar  orientation  of 
our  three  mandibles. 
They  are  well  rounded 
and  even  narrow  at  that 
in  C,  while  chin  angles 
(tubercula  mentalia  s. 
platysmatica)  are  only 
slightly  to  be  noted  in 
E.  They  thus  present 
Klaatsch's  (1909,  113) 
"median  chin"  in  con- 
tradistinction to  his 
"lateral"  one,  for  which 
Frizzi  (1910,'  24)  sub- 
stituted   "round"    and 

"squarish"        (abgekan-  Fig.  25.— Basal   and  median-sagittal 

^                         \      o  outlines   ot   chin   region   in    the   Santa 

tet).      It    may    be    Said  Barbara  mandibles  in  alveolar  orienta- 

tion.     m — s,     median-sagittal;    A — A', 

that  the  more  roundish  alveolar  plane;  id,  infradentale,  id — n, 

,                 r       ,  •  chin  tangent;    Z_A — id — n,  chin  angle; 

Shape    Ot     Chin    in     OUr  f.m„  foramen  mentale.     (i  natural  size.) 


128  SANTA    BARBARA 

three  specimens  is  likewise  a  true  expression  of  rather 
typical  conditions  in  the  American  Indians,  although 
the  opposite  shape  is  also  occasionally  encountered 
among  them. 

The  foramina  mentalia,  of  which  there  are  two  on  the 
left  side  of  B  and  on  the  right  side  of  E,  are  in  line  here, 
as  well  as  in  C,  with  the  second  premolars — in  the  latter, 
however,  with  the  anterior  alveolar  rim,  in  the  former, 
with  the  posterior.  It  seems  that  in  the  Anthropomor- 
phae,  as  well  as  in  the  Hominidae,  and  certainly  in  the 
Australians,  the  situation  of  the  mental  foramina  is  rather 
in  line  with  the  first  molar.  This  is  doubtless  a  feature 
of  phylogenetic  significance,  since  with  the  progressive 
reduction  of  the  alveolar  process  and  the  size  of  the  teeth 
the  foramina  mentalia  move  automatically  forward,  or, 
better,  retain  their  positions  upon  the  more  conservative 
corpus  mandibular  as  against  the  modifying  alveolar 
process. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  ramus  is  dilated  in  both  C 
and  E  as  compared  with  B,  causing  there  the  wider  inci- 
sura  mandibular,  conditions  which  will  be  treated  quan- 
titatively below.  The  processus  coronoidei  are  more 
pointed  in  the  female,  but  in  our  three  mandibles  they 
fall  short  in  height  of  the  condyloid  processes.  They 
show  on  their  medial  sides  well-developed  ridges,  von 
Lenhossek's  (1920,  51)  cristas  endocoronoideae.  Another 
ridge,  the  crista  endocondyloidea  of  the  same  author, 
branches  from  the  former  to  form  the  medial  edge  of  the 
condyloid  process.  Between  the  two  cristas  the  bone 
becomes  thinner  and  often  produces  deep  triangular 
depressions  which  are  the  rule  in  the  lower  jaw  of  the 


CRANIOLOGY  129 

chimpanzee  and  occur  with  some  frequency  in  man  too 
They  are  wanting,  however,  in  our  specimens.  This 
was  called  by  Klaatsch  (1908,  93)  fossa  subcoronoidea, 
and  was  supposed  by  him  to  be  a  muscular  groove. 
But  as  it  is  a  place  particularly  free  from  muscular  inser- 
tion, and  situated  not  below  but  back  of  the  processus 
coronoideus,  it  might  as  well  be  termed  "fossa  (or  tri- 
gonum)  postcoronoideum."  The  longitudinal  groove 
at  the  anterior  border  of  the  ascending  ramus,  Klaatsch' s 
(1909,  108)  fossa  praecoronoidea,  is  deeper  in  B  than  in  C 
and  E,  and  its  width  is  of  medium  proportions.  Its 
lower  portion  in  connecton  with  the  postmolar  space  or 
trigonum  postmolare  (Klaatsch  1909,  108)  presents,  as 
a  rule,  the  greatest  thickness  of  the  mandible.  The 
respective  measurements  are  16  mm.  in  B,  18  mm.  in 
C,  and  14  mm.  in  E,  as  compared  with  23.5  mm.  in  the 
Heidelberg  jaw. 

Medially  the  three  mandibles  are  quite  spacious  and 
well  rounded  out  in  their  anterior  portions.  The  spina 
mentalis  interna,  or,  better,  the  spinas  genioglossi,  are 
individually  well  developed  in  B,  but  are  merely  indicated 
in  C  and  E.  The  insertion  of  the  mm.  geniohyoidei  is 
marked  in  proportion  by  tuberosities.  Just  above  these 
formations  there  is  a  deeper  funnel-like  depression  with 
an  opening  at  the  bottom  in  C,  the  outlet  of  a  canalis 
medianus  Bertelii.  The  fossae  digastricae  slope  backward, 
indicating  an  advanced  morphological  condition  as 
against  those  in  the  fossils  where  the  area  digastrica  is 
directed  downward.  In  our  three  specimens  the  two 
fossae  are  medially  separated  by  a  distinct  spina  inter- 
digastrica.     The  mylohyoid  line,  or  rather  angle,  is  well 


130  SANTA    BARBARA 

developed,  particularly  in  B  and  C,  and  this  seems  to  be 
the  rule  in  the  Indian  lower  jaw.  It  is  even  more  pro- 
jecting in  the  female,  where  likewise  the  postmolar 
width  was  shown  slightly  in  excess  of  that  of  the  males. 

The  condyloid  processes  are  well  rounded  above  and 
show  no  signs  of  flattening  wear  such  as  is  usual  in  middle 
age.  In  vertical  view  they  are  elliptic  with  tapering 
ends,  medially  even  more  so  than  laterally.  The  fre- 
quently occurring  and  slightly  pointed  projection  at  the 
anterior  edge  of  the  mandibular  condyles,  which  is 
brought  about  partly  by  the  molding  influence  of  liga- 
ments and  muscles  (capsula  articularis,  ligamentum 
temporomandibulare,  m.  pterygoideus  externus),  is  not 
present  in  our  specimens.  The  antero-posterior  diameter 
of  the  condyles  which,  according  to  Martin  (1914,  881), 
amounts  in  the  adult  in  most  cases  to  a  third  of  the  length 
of  the  transverse  diameter  of  the  condyles,  comes  in  the 
Santa  Barbara  mandibles  to  about  its  half.  The  length- 
breadth  index  of  the  capitulum  therefore  lies  around  50, 
within  a  general  range  of  23-72  (p.  881),  which  is  higher 
than  the  human  average  of  38.1.  However,  Martin 
states  that  about  90%  of  all  cases  occur  between  the 
index  values  of  30  and  50.  The  following  table  of 
capitulum  measurements  contains  also  a  few  compara- 
tive data  of  which  those  of  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints  are 
distinguished  by  unusual  proportions. 

The  axes  of  the  condyles  are  in  general  quite  variable 
and  subject  to  the  conngurative  formation  at  the  cranial 
basis.  The  axes  are  directed  from  medially  and  back- 
ward to  laterally  and  forward,  which  is  likewise  the  con- 
dition here.     The  angles  formed  by  the  two  condylar 


CRANIOLOGY 


131 


axes  are  greater  in  B  and  E  than  in  C,  corresponding 
thus  to  the  nearly  frontal  direction  of  the  fossae  mandib- 
ulares  there,  as  referred  to  on  page  74.  The  condylar 
angles  are  also  listed  in  the  table. 


HUMAN  VARIETIES  AND 
ANTHROPOIDS 


Santa  Barbara 
B    (*)... 

C   (9)... 


Homo*. 


Chimpanzee* . 
Orang-utan* . 


La  Chapelle-aux- 
Saints* 


CAPITULUM  MANDIBUL.E 

length 

breadth 

breadth-100 
length 

r. 

1. 

r. 

1. 

r. 

l. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

mm. 

21 

20.5 

10 

10 

47.6 

48.8 

19 

20 

10 

10 

52.7 

50.0 

22 

22.5 

12 

11 

54.4 

48.9 

— 

— 

38.1 

(23-72) 
46.1 

■ — ■ 

■ — ■ 

75.0 

2 

9 

13 

.5 

4e 

.6 

angle 
of  con- 
dylar 
axes 


154° 
140° 

158° 


148° 


*  Martin  1914,  881. 

A  word  may  be  said  regarding  the  mutual  behavior 
of  the  processus  alveolaris  and  the  ramus.  It  appears 
that  during  phylogenetic  development  and  with  ihe 
broadening  out  of  the  skull  base,  the  condyles,  as  well 
as  the  coronoid  processes  into  which  the  temporal 
muscles  are  inserted,  develop  and  broaden  similarly, 
producing  the  downward  and  mesially  slanting  position 
of  the  ramus.  Without  changing  the  general  status, 
this  at  times  is  counteracted  by  muscular  traction  that 


132  SANTA    BARBARA 

causes  the  eversion  of  the  anguli  mandibular,  which  as  a 
feature  by  itself  is  very  pronounced  in  the  gorilla.  But 
the  most  remarkable  change  takes  place  between  the 
posterior  end  of  the  alveolar  process  and  the  anterior 
border  of  the  ramus  below  the  coronoid  process,  causing 
that  deep  recess,  the  fossa  praecoronoidea.  It  shows 
the  alveolar  process  to  be  the  more  conservative  element, 
and  the  fossa,  which  is  already  well  marked  in  the  anthro- 
poids, subject  to  the  degree  of  ramus  deviation. 

The  foveas  submaxillares,  as  well  as  the  sublinguales, 
are  quite  pronounced  in  C.  The  sulci  mylohyoidei  and 
the  foramina  mandibularia  are  of  normal  appearance, 
except  that  the  left  sulcus  in  C  is  bridged,  and  both  sulci 
are  doubly  bridged  in  E,  with  outlets  at  the  lower  end. 

The  principal  measurements  of  the  Santa  Barbara 
mandibles  are  combined  in  the  table  on  page  134,  where 
for  comparison  several  other  groups,  as  well  as  the 
Heidelberg  specimen,  are  included.  In  conjunction 
with  this  table  and  those  following,  the  lateral  outlines 
of  our  three  mandibles  in  alveolar  orientation  should 
be  consulted.  The  central  of  the  three  outlines  of  fig. 
26  shows  the  measurements  and  angles  referred  to  in  the 
text. 

The  dimensions  listed  in  our  table  for  the  lower  jaws 
of  B  and  C  are  nearly  identical,  while  the  length  of  E 
falls  short  of,  and  the  two  widths  exceed,  the  correspond- 
ing measurements.  According  to  the  physiological 
ranges  given  by  Martin  (1914,  870)  for  the  three  meas- 
urements extending  for  the  length  from  90  mm.  to 
126  mm.,  the  bicondylar  width  from  103  mm.  to  135 
mm.,  and  the  bigonial  width  from  85  mm.  to  117  mm., 


CRANIOLOGY 


133 


_  Fig.  26. — Lateral  outlines  in  orthogonal  projection  and  alveolar  orienta- 
tion of  the  Santa  Barbara  mandibles.  A — A',  alveolar  plane  line.  For 
angles  and  methods  see  text,     (k  natural  size.) 


134 


SANTA    BARBARA 


PRINCIPAL  MEASUREMENTS  AND 
INDICES  OF  THE  MANDIBLE 

HUMAN  VARIETY 

1 

2 

3 

Index 

length 
mm. 

bicon- 
dylar 
width 

mm. 

bi- 
gonial 
width 

mm. 

1-100 
2 

3-100 
2 

Santa  Barbara 

B    (cf ) 

107* 
109 
99 
102 
106 
112 

117 
118 
120 
120 
112 
122 

97 

96 

102 

101 

93 

103 

90.6 
90.6 
82.5 
98.5 
87.9 
92.3 

82.9 

C    (9  ) 

81.3 

E   (&) 

(Chinesef 

85.0 
83.7 

Averages-!  Negroes! 

83  1 

(Australians! 

84.4 

Heidelberg 

120 

131 

110 

91.7 

84.0 

*  The  length  of  the  mandible  is  measured  from  the  chin  pro- 
jection to  the  most  posterior  points  of  extension,  the  jaw 
resting  on  its  base.  The  points  of  posterior  projection  are 
the  backs  of  the  condyles  (Martin  1914,  559,  measurement 
68).  However,  since  through  the  introduction  of  the  alveolar 
plane  line  {Klaatsch  1909)  we  possess  a  means  of  proper 
mandibular  orientation,  the  length  (mento-condylar)  might 
just  as  well  be  adjusted  to  it.  In  further  justification  of  such 
procedure  is  the  outstanding  fact  that  the  mandibular  orien- 
tation coincides  with  the  general  cranial  ear-eye  orientation 
much  more  frequently  than  the  fortuitous  one  of  its  former 
by  its  basal  border.  Although  the  alveolar  plane  has  been 
utilized  extensively  in  the  present  studies,  the  mandibular 
length  was  not  referred  to  it  in  order  to  facilitate  comparison, 
but  may  nevertheless  be  mentioned  separately  in  this  note. 
The  mento-condylar  lengths  then, — the  one  taken  in  the 
usual  way  and  that  secured  in  alveolar  orientation, —  are  in 
B  as  107  mm.  to  103  mm.,  in  C  as  109  mm.  to  103  mm.,  and 
in  E  as  99  mm.  to  96  mm. 

!  Martin  1914,  869. 


CRANIOLOGY  135 

our  mandibles  represent  about  medium  conditions  in 
B  and  C,  while  for  E  here  holds  good  what  has  been  said 
about  it  in  the  preceding  sentence.  The  length  averages 
listed  for  comparison  in  our  table  are  graded  in  such  a 
way  that  the  Negroes  with  106  mm.  exceed  the  Chinese 
with  102  mm.,  while  both  in  turn  are  exceeded  by  the 
Australians  with  112  mm.  Comparing  the  Chinese 
averages  of  the  two  width  measurements  taken  as  a 
standard  for  peoples  of  Mongoloid  affinity,  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  Santa  Barbara  mandibles  fairly  approxi- 
mate them  as  representing  medium  conditions,  while 
the  Negroes  range  below  and  the  Australians  above  them. 
The  length-width  indices  of  our  specimens  are  strongly 
influenced  by  the  relative  shortness  of  their  lengths, 
especially  in  E,  i.e.,  they  range  below  the  averages  of  the 
other  varieties  except  the  Negroes,  while  the  high  index 
of  the  Chinese  is  not  entirely  plausible  from  the  average 
dimensions  involved. 

The  width  indices  are  more  stable  in  general,  amount- 
ing to  81.3  in  C  and  82.9  in  B,  and  accounting  in  the 
former  for  a  slightly  greater  bicondylar  and  a  slightly 
smaller  bigonial  width.  The  higher  index  of  85.0  in  E 
results,  of  course,  rather  from  its  markedly  greater  bi- 
gonial than  its  only  slightly  greater  bicondylar  width. 
Regarding  the  Heidelberg  jaw,  it  is  its  exceedingly  large 
dimensions  which  mark  it  as  the  largest  specimen  on 
record,  while  its  indices  conform  with  those  of  the 
Australians. 

The  height  proportions  of  the  body  were  determined 
by  Cameron  (1923,  54  c)  by  an  index  involving  the  sym- 
physial  and  molar  heights,  the  former  being  measured. 


136  SANTA    BARBARA 

like  the  chin  height,  between  the  lower  border  of  the 
chin  and  the  interalveolar  septum  of  the  middle  incisor 
teeth,  the  latter  between  the  second  and  third  molars. 
Cameron  observed  the  anterior  height  of  jaw  in  the  adult 
Western  and  Central  Eskimo  greatly  to  exceed  in  cases 
that  of  the  molar  region.  The  lowest  index  as  expressing 
the  greatest  divergence  between  the  two  heights  was 
that  of  an  adult  female  at  62.1,  while  an  adolescent  female 
had  an  index  of  91.4.  He  compares  the  adult  index  with 
the  European  variation  of  76.1-94.1,  concluding  "that 
the  masticatory  activity,  and  therefore  the  downward 
pressure  upon  the  lower  molar  series,  were  not  merely 
so  evident  in  these  types  of  mankind"  (p.  54  c).  It 
seems  doubtful  to  the  present  writer  whether  the 
depressed  molar  height  of  the  corpus  is  a  result  of  func- 
tion, since  the  principal  demands  on  the  masticatory 
apparatus  occur  during  a  period  of  concluded  growth 
when  such  radical  changes  in  a  bone  as  alluded  to  are 
hardly  imaginable.  He  is  confirmed  in  his  deviating 
opinion  by  the  examination  of  an  Eskimo  mandible  from 
Smith  sound  (American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
no.  105)  of  extraordinary  massiveness.  Its  two  corpus 
heights  are  as  37  mm.  to  30  mm.,  giving  rise  to  the  high 
index  of  81.1. 

Our  two  mandibles  B  and  C  have  chin  heights  of  33 
mm.  each,  and  molar  heights  of  29  mm.  and  25  mm. 
respectively,  resulting  in  indices  of  85.5  in  B  and  75.8 
in  C.  With  a  chin  height  of  27  mm.  and  a  molar  height 
of  28  mm.,  the  conditions  are  reversed  in  E.  The  index 
here  amounts  to  103.7,  thus  exceeding  Cameron'' s  Euro- 
pean range.     The  smaller  chin  height  of  our  specimen  E 


CRANIOLOGY  137 

is  due  to  an  incurvation  of  the  basal  border  of  the  chin, 
Klaatsctis  (1909,  110)  incisura  submentalis,  which  is 
absent  in  C  and  only  slightly  indicated  in  B.  The  last 
named  author  sees  in  it  an  inferior  character  existing  in 
the  Gibbon  and  the  mandibles  of  old  diluvial  origin, 
and  only  as  a  reminiscence  of  those  conditions  encoun- 
tered in  more  recent  varieties. 

It  is  to  Cameron's  credit  that  he  has  called  renewed 
attention  to  a  faint  groove  medially  right  below  the 
third  molar  tooth,  which  is  theie  caused  by  nervus 
lingualis  (p.  c  55).  Not  of  constant  occurrence  in  gen- 
eral, it  is  nevertheless  very  pronounced  in  our  speci- 
men C. 

In  order  to  express  by  an  index  the  dimensions  of 
the  ramus,  Cameron  (p.  c  55)  has  brought  into  propor- 
tion its  minimum  breadth,  and,  at  right  angles  with  it, 
the  height  from  the  bottom  of  the  sigmoid  notch  (incisura 
mandibular)  to  the  lower  border  of  the  corpus.  Admit- 
ting that  the  height  measurement  of  the  ramus  as  usually 
taken  between  the  condyle  and  the  angle  (condylion  to 
gonion)  is  a  rather  arbitrary  one,  the  writer  fails  to  see 
the  advantage  of  the  substitution  of  the  no  less  variable 
sigmoid  height  without  accounting  for  the  coronoid 
and  condylar  processes  which  are  integral  parts  of  the 
ramus.  He  therefore  would  prefer  that  the  ramus  height 
be  taken  with  the  inclusion  of  the  two  processes  easily 
to  be  connected  by  a  string  or  a  needle,  and  above  the 
deepest  point  of  the  curve.  The  accompanying  table 
shows  our  two  mandibles  B  and  C  to  be  possessed  of  equal 
ramus  breadths  of  35  mm.,  E  exceeding  them  by  2  mm. 
The  difference  between  the  sigmoid  and  condylo-coro- 


138 


SANTA   BARBARA 


noid  heights  is,  in  favor  of  the  latter,  seen  gradually 
ascending  and  amounting  to  13  mm.,  15  mm.,  and  18  mm. 
in  our  three  mandibles  and  signifying  a  differing  depth  of 
the    incisura    mandibular     They    differ    also    between 


HUMAN  VARIETY  AND  CHIMPANZEE 


Santa  Barbara 

B    (cf) 

C   (9) 

E   (c?) 

\\  estern  and  Central  Iiskimof 

d"  (7) 

9    (4)... 

Anglo-Saxonsf  (10) 


Chimpanzee^ 50      58 


RAMUS  MANDIBUL.E 


35 

35 
37 

41.5 
35.1 


53 
44 

51 

50.3 
49.4 


66 
59 
69 


Indices 


66.0 
79.5 

72.5 

82.2 
71.0 
52.3  to 
67.8 


86.2 


53.0 
59.3 
53.6 


73.5 


*  The  description  of  measurements  2  and  3  is  given  in  the 
text. 

t  Cameron  1923. 

I  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  51377. 

themselves  in  such  a  way  that  the  heights  of  C  fall  be- 
tween those  of  B  and  E.  The  index  with  the  sigmoid 
height,  Cameron's  "index  of  width  of  the  ramus"  (p. 
c  55),  is  at  79.5  higher  in  C  than  in  B  and  E,  owing  to  its 


CRANIOLOGY  139 

lower  ramus  height  at  about  equal  breadths.  The  con- 
dylo-coronoid  heights  influence  the  indices,  of  course,  to 
the  amount  of  the  height  differences.  The  Eskimo  of  the 
last  table,  at  least  in  the  males,  have  broader  and  lower 
rami,  as  compared  with  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens, 
and  hence  a  markedly  higher  index.  The  females  range 
with  slender  rami  below  the  males.  Decidedly  lower 
indices  are  characteristic  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  with 
perhaps  an  average  around  60.0,  or  even  lower,  in  expres- 
sion of  much  slimmer  rami.  Cameron  (p.  c  55)  remarks 
on  the  highly  interesting  observation  that  the  index 
"increased  with  age  in  both  sexes,  up  to  middle  life  at 
any  rate,"  owing  to  the  increasing  width  of  the  index, 
while  "in  European  types  of  mandible,  it  was  ascertained 
that  the  index  of  width  of  the  ramus  increased  with  age 
so  long  as  the  teeth  remained  intact,  and  then  diminished 
again  if  the  individual  became  edentulous." 

For  comparison  the  corresponding  measurements  of 
a  chimpanzee  are  included  in  the  table.  They  exceed 
those  of  the  human  varieties  considerably,  yielding  also 
indices  in  excess  of  them. 

Since  the  establishment  by  Klaatsch  of  a  plane  of 
orientation,  quite  a  number  of  the  absolute  measure- 
ments of  the  mandible  may  be  referred  to  it.1     Thus,  the 

1  Slightly  modifying  the  technique  proposed  by  Klaatsch 
(1909,  102-103)  and  H.  Virchow  (1920,  14),  the  writer  passes 
his  alveolar  plane  line  through  points  upon  the  thickened 
seam  all  around  the  alveolar  process  and  which  is  rarely  mis- 
sing, between  the  middle  incisors  and  at  the  alveolus  for  m3. 
He  believes  to  have  thus  found  more  constant  points  of  orien- 
tation as  compared  with  those  required  by  the  two  authors 
named. 


140  SANTA   BARBARA 

ramus  measurements  are  easily  ascertained.  The  mu- 
tual relation  between  the  coronoid  and  condyloid  heights 
above   the    alveolar   plane  might  be  expressed  by  an 

...      condylar  height  •  100  1 

index  according  to  the  formula: — — —, . 

coronoid  height 

The  Santa  Barbara  specimens  are  distinguished  by 
lower  coronoid  processes;  they  are  chamaecoronic  with 
indices  of  105.0  in  B,  122.6  in  C,  and  129.7  in  E. 
Puccioni  (p.  300)  classifies  the  American  Indian  as 
hypsicoronic,  i.e.,  with  indices  up  to  94.5.  His  state- 
ment refers,  of  course,  to  average  conditions,  as  likewise 
does  the  following:  "Les  mandibules  chamsecorones  ne  se 
trouvent  pas  chez  les  hommes:  la  machoire  inferieure 
de  Mauer  est  la  seule  qui  offre  un  indice  rentrant  dans 
cegroupe."  Our  two  mandibles  C  and  E,  however,  fall 
within  the  chamaecoronic  range,  while  B,  isocoronic  at 
105.0,  is  not  far  removed  from  the  chamaecoronic. 

The  depth  of  the  incisura  mandibular  (s.  condylocoro- 
noidea),  which  varies  in  the  human  varieties  from  10 
mm.  to  18  mm.  {Martin  1914,  881),  presents  with  12 
mm.  in  B,  13  mm.  in  C,  and  16  mm.  in  E,  varying  con- 
ditions in  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens.  Greater  differ- 
ences were  noted  for  the  condylo-coronoid  width. 
Measuring  35  mm.  in  B,  it  reaches  42  mm.  in  C  and  E, 
and  represents  in  the  latter  a  kind  of  a  "dilation"  of  the 

1  It  is  clear  that  the  coronoid  process  may  be  either  higher: 
lower,  or  at  an  equal  height  with  the  condyloid  process- 
Puccioni  (1914,  300)  classifies  the  index  according  to  the 
following  terms,  which  explain  themselves: 

hypsicoronic x-  94. 5 

isocoronic 94. 6-106. 5 

chamaecoronic 106. 6-x 


CRANIOLOGY 


141 


two  processes,  which  seems  to  be  more  frequent  in  the 
female  mandible. 

The  indices  derived  from  these  measurements  are,  with 
34.3  in  B,  31.0  in  C,  and  38.1  in  E,  microbathyccelomic 
in  B  and  C,  but  macrobathyccelomic  in  E,  according  to 
PuCcionVs  (1914,  303)  classification.1  In  spite  of  its 
greater  depth,  the  lower 
index  in  C  is  due  to  the 
markedly  greater  width, 
which  in  fact  appears  to 
be  the  more  variable 
factor,  not  only  in  the 
Indian  mandible,  but  in 
the  Mongoloid  in  general. 
The  index  of  E,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  expressive 
of  a  greater  incisura 
depth. 

The  alveolar  plane  line 
is  of  greatest  importance 
in  angular  investigation. 
The  following  table  con- 
tains in  alveolar  orienta- 
tion (1)  the  condylo-coronoid  angle  between  the  condylo- 
coronoid  tangent  and  a  parallel  of  the  alveolar  plane 
line,  (2)  the  ramus  angle  between  the  ramus  tangent 
and  the  alveolar  plane  line,  (3)  the"postero-basal"  (mihi) 
angle  between  the  ramus  and  basal  tangents,  and  (4) 

1  Incisura  index : 

microbathyccelomic x-37. 0 

macrobathyccelomic 37. 1-x 


Fig.  27. — Superposition  of  mandib- 
ular rami  in  lateral  projection  and 
alveolar  orientation,  to  show  differ- 
ences of  ramus  angles.    A — A ',  alveolar 

plane. Santa    Barbara    B 

(cD; Santa  Barbara  C  (#9); 

Ozan,  Arkansas  (no.  543  inf., 

M.  A.  I.).     (§  natural  size.) 


142 


SANTA    BARBARA 


the"antero-basal"  (mihi)  angle  between  the  chin  vertical 
and  the  basal  tangent.  They  may  be  read  also  from 
the  lateral  projections  of  fig.  26  (middle  figure). 


HUMAN  VARIETY 


Santa  Barbara 
B    (<*■)... 

C   (9)... 

E   (d1)... 
North  Pacific 
coast  (unde- 
formed) 


<?. 


Averages 


European* 

Negro* 

Australian^ 
Dajak* 


MANDIBULAR  ANGLES  IN  ALVEOLAR  ORIENTATION 


condylo- 
coronoid 


-7° 
-12° 
-18° 


+0.4° 
(-18  to 

+  18°) 

-1.4° 
(-12  to 

+  12°) 

-10° 

+20° 

-12° 
+  7° 


ramus 

postero- 
basal 

75° 

115° 

66° 

123° 

77° 

109° 

69.0° 

118.4° 

(55- 
79°) 
64.2° 

(100- 

137°) 
124.2° 

(57- 
70°) 
77° 

(116- 

131°) 
112° 

70° 

128° 

83° 

116° 

75° 

108° 

antero- 
basal 


81° 
82° 
85° 


81.8° 
(69- 

89°) 
80.5° 
(72- 

86°) 

78° 

71° 

72° 
88° 


*  Single  jaws  {Klaatsch  1909 ) . 

Before  the  introduction  of  the  alveolar  plane  of  man- 
dibular orientation,  the  means  of  determining  the  exact 
state  of  erectness  or  declination  of  the  ramus  were  want- 
ing. The  ramus  angles  on  that  plane  for  the  Santa 
Barbara  specimens  are  75°  in  B,  66°  in  C,  and  77°  in  E. 
The  female  angle  (C  9 )  is  thus  seen  to  range  below  the 
male  angles.  The  average  ramus  angles  of  the  unde- 
formed  crania  from  the  North  Pacific  Coast,  at  69.0° 
and  64.2°  in  the  two  sexes,  also  show  the  female  angle 


CRANIOLOGY  143 

to  be  smaller  than  that  of  the  male,  or,  what  is  equivalent, 
signifies  the  more  marked  declination  of  the  female 
ramus.  This  fact  being  established  there,  it  was  shown 
by  further  comparison  that  the  infantile  ramus  angle 
fell  short  of  the  angle  in  both  the  male  and  the  female, 
the  cause  for  it,  of  course,  lying  with  the  processes  of 
growth  and  function.  In  order  to  show  the  different 
degrees  of  declination,  the  ramus  outlines  in  lateral  pro- 
jection of  Santa  Barbara  specimens  B  and  C  are  super- 
posed in  fig.  27,  together  with  an  outline  of  an  infan- 
tile mandible  from  Ozan,  Arkansas  (no.  543  of  our  col- 
lection). They  were  made  to  coincide  at  the  points  of 
intersection  between  the  ramus  tangents  and  the  alveo- 
lar plane  line.  The  other  ramus  angles  of  our  table 
show  a  remarkable  degree  of  erectness  at  83°  in  an  Aus- 
tralian, followed  by  a  European  at  77°,  a  Dajak  at  75°, 
and  an  African  Negro  at  70°.  However,  their  figures, 
like  those  of  the  Santa  Barbara  mandibles,  are  only  of 
relative  comparative  value,  as  they  represent  only  indi- 
vidual ones.  Taking  the  ranges  of  variation  of  the  North 
Pacific  Coast  as  a  criterion,  it  will  nevertheless  be  realized 
that  our  two  specimens  hold  high  stations  there  and  that 
the  Australian  at  83°  even  exceeds  the  ranges. 

In  close  relation  to  the  ramus  angle,  but  conditioned 
by  the  behavior  of  the  basal  tangent,  the  postero-basal 
angle  is,  in  a  way,  the  equivalent  of  and  comparable 
with  the  older  ramus  angle.  In  spite  of  the  variation 
of  that  tangent,  the  sex  difference  is  well  pronounced  in 
the  individual  figures  of  the  Santa  Barbara  specimens, 
as  well  as  in  those  of  the  North  Pacific  Coast.  They  are 
in  favor  of  the  female  angle  and  correlated  with  the 


144  SANTA    BARBARA 

greater  female  ramus  angles  first  discussed.  The  angles 
of  B  and  C  fairly  correspond  with  those  of  the  North 
Pacific  specimens,  while  E  falls  noticeably  short  of  them 
on  account  of  its  more  erect  ramus  tangent.  The  indi- 
vidual figures  of  our  column  are  quite  variable,  owing 
doubtless  to  the  varying  conditions  regarding  the  basal 
tangent.  These  may  best  be  judged  from  the  ranges  of 
the  antero-basal  angle  between  the  basal  tangent  and 
the  chin  vertical.  Sex  differences  of  this  angle  seem  to 
favor  the  males,  who  have  a  slightly  higher  average. 

For  the  postero-basal,  or  the  ramus  angle  of  the  older 
method,  Martin  (1914,  884)  gives  an  adult  range  of 
88-142°,  and  Kieffer's  (1908)  averages  for  Peruvians 
and  Chinese  at  119°,  Australians  at  124°,  Negroes  at  125°, 
and  Europeans  at  128°.  The  latter  author  showed  that 
it  was  the  differing  chin  heights  that  bore  decidedly  on 
the  outcome  of  the  angle. 

The  condylo-coronoid  deviation  has  been  expressed 
by  the  condylo-coronoid  index  (see  pages  139-140) .  The 
more  exact  method,  however,  seems  to  be  the  determina- 
tion of  the  angle  of  deviation  of  the  "condylo-coronoid 
tangent"  (Klaatsch  1909,  107)  from  intersecting  lines. 
Thus  Klaatsch  determined  such  an  angle  by  the  inter- 
section of  the  condylo-coronoid  and  ramus  tangents. 
However,  both  being  variable  quantities,  this  method 
lacks  definiteness.  Puccioni  (.1913,  7)  determines  the 
angle  in  relation  to  al  ine  at  right  angles  with  the  alveo- 
lar plane  line,  which  he  erects  as  a  tangent  to  the  anterior 
border  of  the  ramus.  The  angle  opens  forward  and  is 
named  by  Puccioni  "angolo  anteriore  della  branca," 
the  justification  of  which  is  not  quite  clear,  since  it  is 


CRANIOLOGY  145 

the  deviation  of  the  condylo-coronoid  tangent  which  is 
to  be  expressed  by  it.  To  the  present  writer  the  sim- 
plest and  most  unequivocal  method  seems  to  be  the  direct 
determination  of  the  angle  upon  a  parallel  to  the  alveo- 
lar plane  line  passing  through  the  coronion.  It  is  a 
plus  angle  (  +  )  if  the  condylo-coronoid  tangent  slopes 
backward,  and  a  minus  one  (— )  if  it  slopes  forward. 
The  required  lines  can  easily  be  drawn  into  the  cranio- 
gram  (mandibulogram) ,  since  a  suitable  apparatus  for 
direct  measurements  is  not  yet  available.  The  angle 
itself  is  one  of  great  variability.  In  the  North  Pacific 
mandibles,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  table,  it  extends 
from -18°  to +  18°  in  the  males  and  from  -12°  to  +12° 
in  the  females,  with  averages  of  +0.4°  and  —1.4°  in 
the  two  sexes.  The  Santa  Barbara  mandibles,  with 
—  7°  in  B,  —12°  in  C,  and  —18°  in  E,  decidedly  empha- 
size the  minus  state.  Of  some  significance  is  the  single 
value  of  +20°  in  the  Negro,  which  exceeds  the  plus  side 
of  the  North  Pacific  range  of  variation.  It  will  remain 
for  a  later  period  of  multiplied  studies  in  this  new  method 
to  produce  more  comprehensively  differentiated  results. 
PuccionVs  assertion  of  the  predominant  state  of  hypsicor- 
ony  in  the  American  Indian  can  not  very  well  be  upheld 
on  the  basis  of  our  own  results,  at  least  for  the  Santa 
Barbara  specimens  and  the  North  Pacific  tribes.  His 
statement  as  based  on  his  index  classification  (see  page 
140)  is  neither  prompted  by  the  Santa  Barbara  indices  as 
listed  there  nor  by  the  condylo-coronoid  angles  which 
likewise  suggest  a  chamsecoronic  state,  while  the  average 
angles  of  the  mandibles  of  the  undeformed  crania  from 
the  North  Pacific  Coast  suggest  absolute  isocorony.     The 


146  SANTA   BARBARA 

range  of  variation  here  is  nevertheless  quite  extended,  as 
stated  above.  However,  Puccioni's  assertion  is  upheld 
by  MacCitrdy  (1923,  234)  for  Peruvian  mandibles,  when 
he  states  that,  "in  the  collection  as  a  whole,  the  coronoid 
process  is  almost  without  exception  higher  than  the 
condoloid." 

TEETH 

All  the  teeth  in  the  upper  as  well  as  in  the  lower  jaws 
were  erupted  in  B  and  C.  This  holds  good  for  E  too, 
except  that  in  its  lower  jaw  the  third  molars  have  not 
appeared.  Of  all  the  dentures  only  that  of  the  lower  jaw 
of  C  contains  the  full  number  of  teeth;  the  others  are 
slightly  incomplete  by  postmortem  loss.  The  teeth 
extant  are  recorded  in  the  section  on  the  State  of  Preser- 
vation (page  12). 

Common  in  all  the  teeth  is  their  wearing  off,  which, 
although  not  extravagant,  is  well  pronounced  and  con- 
forms with  the  degree  of  attrition  generally  met  with  in 
Indians  of  medium  age.  The  third  molars  are  better 
preserved  in  both  jaws  than  the  two  other  molars  and 
the  premolars,  which  demonstrates  the  diminishing  func- 
tional strain  in  a  fore-to-aft  direction.  The  occlusal 
surfaces  of  the  molars  are  beveled  in  the  familiar  wray, 
i.e.,  slanting  lingually-buccally  in  the  two  jaws.  There 
is  a  more  intensive  attrition  of  the  incisors  and  canines 
to  be  noticed  in  the  female  C. 

The  teeth  are  of  medium  size  in  every  respect,  showing 
the  typical  differences,  in  the  molars,  of  five  cusps  in  the 
upper  and  four  in  the  lower,  with  a  diminishing  tendency 
backward.     The  molars  diminish  also  in  size  and  thus 


CRANIOLOGY  147 

represent  the  condition  of  progressive  phyletic  differen- 
tiation. 

No  anomalies  occur  in  our  specimens,  and  no  patho- 
logical conditions  were  noted.  This  refers  particularly 
to  caries,  of  which  there  is  no  indication  at  all.  Due  to  a 
pathological  process  (periostitis,  fistula),  however,  is  the 
deterioration  of  the  anterior  alveolar  borders  of  the  lower 
left  incisors  of  C,  in  such  a  way  that  openings  of  the  alveo- 
lar wall  at  the  ends  of  the  roots  were  produced,  while  the 
alveolar  margins  remained  unimpaired  in  the  alveolus  for 
\2,  while  that  of  ii  is  only  slightly  affected.1  The  teeth 
themselves  are  normal. 

A  feature  of  special  interest  in  Indian  skulls,  and  one 
thoroughly  studied  by  Hrdlicka  (1920), 2  is  the  "shovel- 
shape"  of  the  incisors,  and  which  is  more  elaborate  in  the 
upper  than  in  the  lower.  In  the  Santa  Barbara  speci- 
mens this  feature  is  merely  indicated  and  may  be 
described  as  "  semi-shovel"  in  the  upper  incisors  of  B  and 
C,  and  "trace"  in  E.  The  latter  is  noted  also  in  the 
lower  incisors  of  B,  while  there  is  no  "trace"  in  C  and  E. 

1  Regarding  this  condition  of  alveoloclasia,  see  Leigh  1925, 
190. 

2  In  his  extensive  study  of  the  literature  that  author  traced 
the  description  of  the  feature  under  discussion  back  as  far  as 
1844,  while  as  an  Indian  character  he  first  called  attention 
to  it  in  1907  (article  on  "Anatomy"  in  Handbook  of  Amer- 
ican Indians,  Bull.  30  Bur.  Amer.  Ethnol.).  According  to 
Hrdlicka's  tables,  pronounced  "shovel-shaped"  median  incisors 
occur  in  67%,  and  lateral  incisors  in  76j%,  while  smaller  per- 
centages go  to  the  "semi-shovel"  and  "trace."  Thus,  "keilo- 
koilomorphy"  (better,  perhaps,  in  English  adaptation,  from 
xetXos  =  lip  and  /coIXos  =  hollow:  "cheilo-ccelomorphy," 
or  "chilo-ccelomorphy")  must  be  considered  a  distinct  racial 
character  in  the  American  Indian. 


148  SANTA   BARBARA 

CONCLUSION 

The  study  of  the  cranial  material  from  Santa  Barbara 
has  disclosed  a  number  of  facts  which  are  the  outcome  of 
a  methodical  investigation  on  a  comparative  basis,  the 
more  important  of  which  will  be  briefly  reviewed. 

In  general  the  size  of  the  skulls  as  exhibited  by  their 
capacity,  circumferences,  and  modules,  was  recognized 
as  medium  and  tending  toward  smallness.  This  is  in 
conformity  with  the  findings  of  other  authors.  Thus, 
while  Boas  (1895,  407)  has  shown  that  the  skulls  from 
the  California  islands  are  smaller  by  6%  than  those  of 
the  Plains,  Hrdlicka  (1906,  54)  asserts  that  "the  Cali- 
fornia mainland  crania  are  characterized  by  small  size." 
The  principal  cranial  diameters  are  therefore  rather  sub- 
medium  and  give  rise  to  meso-brachy cranial,  ortho- 
hypsicranial,  and  metrio-acrocranial  indices.  If  this  is 
in  keeping  with  the  cranial  averages  of  the  California 
mainland  and  particularly  those  around  Santa  Barbara, 
the  interesting  fact  was  revealed  in  previous  works 
that  a  difference  of  type  occurs  on  the  islands  of  the 
Santa  Barbara  archipelago  in  such  a  way  that  on  the 
islands  situated  farther  north  (San  Miguel,  Santa  Rosa, 
Santa  Cruz,  and  Anacapa)  shortheadedness  predomi- 
nated as  against  longheadedness  on  the  islands  farther 
south  (San  Clemente,  Santa  Barbara,  San  Nicolas,  and 
Santa  Catalina).  A  number  of  authors  (Can-  1879; 
R.  Virchow  1889;  Boas  1895;  Matiegka  1904;  Dixon 
1923,  et  al.)  concur  in  this  statement,  which  in  part  is 
corroborated  by  our  own  data  on  a  series  of  crania  from 
San   Miguel   island,   used   for   comparison,   and   whose 


CRANIOLOGY  149 

cranial  length-breadth  indices  average  78.3  in  the  males 
and  79.2  in  the  females.  The  total  frequency  of  meso- 
brachycrany  in  this  series  amounts  to  91.7%,  the  rather 
insignificant  remainder  of  8.3%  being  dolichocrany. 
Further  reference  to  these  proportions  will  be  made 
below. 

A  feature  of  particular  interest  in  the  Santa  Barbara 
skulls  is  the  degree  of  postorbital  constriction  expressed 
not  only  by  direct  measurements,  but  also  in  proportion 
to  the  cranial  breadth.  The  transverse  fronto-parietal 
index  was  shown  to  be  metriometopic  in  skulls  B,  C,  and 
D,  and  even  stenometopic  in  E.  The  impression  of 
this  condition  is  peculiarly  emphasized  by  the  morpho- 
logical behavior  of  the  zygomatic  processes  of  the 
frontal  bone,  which  appear  to  be  drawn  out  laterally  in  a 
horizontal  direction.  This  has  a  bearing  naturally  on 
the  fossa  temporalis,  which  is  relatively  deep,  and  like- 
wise on  the  appearance  of  the  zygomatic  arches  in  verti- 
cal aspect,  thus  causing  the  condition  of  phaenozygy. 

The  smaller  transverse  extension  of  the  frontal  bones 
is  met  by  their  lesser  vaulting  longitudinally,  a  con- 
dition more  pronounced  in  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls 
than  in  La  Chapelle-aux-Saints  and  Neandertal,  and 
falls  likewise  below  the  San  Miguel  averages.  The  angle 
of  frontal  declination,  on  the  other  hand,  corresponds  at 
the  same  time  with  European  conditions,  exceeding  even 
the  San  Miguel,  Haida,  and  Eskimo  averages  of  our  table. 
However,  the  relative  flatness  of  the  frontal  bones  pro- 
duces another  interesting  feature,  viz.,  post-bregma- 
tic  elevation,  a  condition  found  quite  typically  in  mor- 
phologically inferior  races. 


150  SANTA   BARBARA 

The  glabella  is  only  weakly  developed  in  the  male 
skulls  as  well  as  in  the  skull  of  the  female. 

The  pars  nasalis  of  the  frontal  bone  was  found  rather 
long,  but  not  so  long  as  that  of  an  Eskimo  from  Cape 
Nome.  The  width  of  the  pars  nasalis  of  the  latter  was 
in  turn  less  extended,  thus  emphasizing  the  Mongoloid 
condition  in  contradistinction  to  the  greater  interorbital 
width  in  Europeans. 

The  orbits  are  meso-hypsikonchial  and  have  the  infero- 
lateral  angle  rounded  out  as  usually  is  found  in  Mongo- 
loid skulls  and  which  is  drawn  downward  as  a  rule  in 
Europeans. 

The  nasal  indices  are  leptorrhinic  in  B  and  E,  but 
slightly  chamaerrhinic  in  C,  while  the  lower  nasal  notches 
represent  advanced  morphological  conditions.  This  can 
also  be  said  of  the  fossa  canina.  Altogether  the  facial 
detail  is  quite  well  proportioned  and  in  harmony  with 
the  general  facial  dimensions  which  render  our  skulls 
mesenic  with  a  slight  tendency  toward  euryeny,  and 
which  as  such  corresponds  with  the  conditions  most 
frequently  met  in  the  Indians  of  the  Pacific  Coast. 

A  feature  of  more  decisive  significance,  but  likewise 
not  at  all  rare  in  the  Indians  of  the  Pacific  Coast  in  general 
and  of  Santa  Barbara  in  particular,  is  the  more  or  less 
pronounced  state  of  prognathy,  especially  in  the  alveolar 
region,  where  it  falls  as  low  as  68°  in  skull  C.  To  this 
extent  it  recalls  similar  conditions  in  certain  tribes  of 
southern  India,  such  as  the  Senoi,  Semang,  Singhalese, 
etc.  In  opposition  to  this  the  foramen  magnum  angle 
falls  rather  high  in  expression  of  a  phylogenetically 
advanced  stage. 


CRANIOLOGY  151 

From  a  purely  descriptive  point  of  view  the  facial 
complex  appears  somewhat  out  of  proportion,  i.e.,  rather 
small  by  comparison  with  the  well-rounded  and  capa- 
cious brain  case,  as  will  be  noticed  by  consulting  the 
tables  of  curve  systems  and  the  photographs.  This 
impression  is  conveyed  not  only  by  the  flatter  frontal 
outlines,  but  more  so  by  the  postbregmatic  elevations 
and  the  bulky  well-rounded  postauricular  portions  of 
the  brain  case. 

Muscle  marks  on  the  whole  are  weakly  developed,  the 
texture  refined,  and  the  general  outlines  quite  gracile. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  mastoids,  the  zygomatic 
bridges,  and  the  processes  of  the  zygomatic  bones. 

The  fossa  temporalis  presents  no  anomalous  conditions. 

The  dental  arches  are  paraboloid  in  shape,  and  thus 
are  of  an  advanced  morphological  state. 

The  infero-lateral  orbital  angle  has  been  mentioned 
as  characteristically  Mongoloid,  which  is  likewise  true 
of  the  "shovel-shape"  incisor  teeth,  and  of  the  vertical 
outline  of  the  nasal  bones  which  is  quite  concave  in  all 
the  skulls.  The  latter  feature,  as  well  as  the  pronounced 
alveolar  prognathism,  is  also  constantly  referred  to  in 
the  works  of  R,  Virchow  (1889),  Matiegka  (1904),  and 
others. 

The  purely  morphological  evaluation  of  the  numerous 
traits  discussed  in  this  study  admits  of  a  division  into 
primitive  or  inferior  and  advanced  morphological  con- 
ditions. Among  the  first  are  to  be  counted:  (a)  the 
pronounced  alveolar  prognathism;  (b)  the  flatness  of 
the  frontal  bone;  (c)  the  postorbital  constriction;  (d) 
the  postbregmatic  elevation;  (e)  the  weak  chin  promi- 


152  SANTA    BARBARA 

nence,  which  is,  however,  also  a  Mongoloid  trait.  These 
are  certainly  compensated  by  such  features  as  the  rela- 
tive cranial  height;  the  normal  degree  of  frontal  declina- 
tion; the  advanced  condition  of  the  foramen  magnum 
plane;  the  slight  superciliary  development;  the  shape  of 
the  dental  arch;  the  teeth  of  elegant  shape;  and  particu- 
larly the  molar  size  conforming  to  phylogenetic  reduc- 
tion toward  the  third,  and  the  apertura  piriformis,  not 
to  speak  of  the  refined  texture  of  the  bones  and  the 
general  appearance  of  the  skulls,  which  is  anything 
but  crude  in  the  sense  of  more  primitive  finds. 

If  the  problem  of  identifying  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls 
with  the  morphologically  inferior  ones  of  the  Neander- 
tal  kind  be  thus  disposed  of,  the  question  arises  as  to 
their  position  in  the  ethnical  complex  of  the  American 
Indians  and  particularly  of  the  Indians  of  California. 
Relatively  inferior  morphological  characters,  if  judged  by 
Caucasoid  standards,  may  occur  and  do  occur  in  almost 
all  the  American  Indian  types,  a  number  of  them,  how- 
ever, representing  racial  characteristics  at  the  same  time. 
If  some  of  them,  on  the  other  hand,  occur,  as  in  our  finds, 
in  a  given  locality,  one  may  be  justified  in  identifying 
them  with  a  more  ancient  ethnological  layer  which  in 
analogous  cases  inferred  not  only  certain  differences  of 
type,  but  more  primitive  morphological  conditions  as 
well.  The  former  suggestion,  however,  does  not  hold 
true  in  our  case,  for,  as  shown  in  pis.  xiii  and  xiv,  by 
the  superposition  of  the  cranial  outlines  of  our  skulls 
B  and  C  upon  such  from  San  Miguel  island,  these  out- 
lines fairly  coincide  in  every  detail  except  the  frontal 
section  of  the  median  sagittal  arc,  which   shows    the 


CRANIOLOGY  153 

peculiar  depression  of  the  Santa  Barbara  skulls.  They 
are  thus  seen  to  represent  the  type  of  their  immediate 
environment,  which,  as  stated  above,  is  shortheaded  in 
comparison  with  the  more  longheaded  ones  from  the 
southern  coast  and  the  group  of  southern  islands.  These 
are  of  the  Sonora  cranial  type  {Boas) ,  while  the  northern 
shorthead  is  very  probably  an  intruder. 

Finally,  as  regards  the  all-important  geological  con- 
dition in  connection  with  our  find,  a  statement  by  Dr. 
Robert  T.  Hill  in  the  "Los  Angeles  Times"  of  November 
13,  1923,  maybe  referred  to  and  the  following  paragraphs 
cited.     Dr.  Hill  says: 

"The  bones  were  found  beneath  about  five  feet  of  black 
vegetal  soil,  some  of  which  might  have  been  scraped  down 
from  the  higher  portions  of  the  hill  in  the  various  grazing  and 
horticultural  operations  which  have  taken  place  since  the  hill 
was  occupied  first  by  a  large  adobe  Mexican  ranch  house  and 
later  by  the  [Ambassador]  hotel,  both  of  which  structures 
have  been  razed  by  fire  or  otherwise. 

"The  material  in  which  the  bones  occur  is  a  dark-colored 
impure  earth  carrying  many  fragments  of  shells  and  charcoal. 
This  is  slightly  indurated  but  easily  breakable  between  the 
fingers.  The  induration  is  like  that  which  accompanies  any 
old  Mexican  or  Indian  patio  floor  of  today  where  much 
tramping  and  frequent  throwing  down  of  liquids  occur. 

"It  is  all  secondary  surface  material,  and  by  no  stretch  of 
the  imagination  can  it  be  interpreted  as  imbedded  sedimen- 
tary strata  beneath  the  original  accumulation  of  the  camp 
floor,  as  was  alleged.  Neither  is  there  anything  in  connection 
with  this  material  or  its  soil  overburden  which  would  justify 
the  assignment  of  great  age  to  it." 

Having  thus  disposed  of  the  geological  evidence,  the 
problem  of  Indian  antiquity  may  once  more  be  referred 
to.     Proof  of  a  relative  antiquity  of  our  finds  may  be 


154  SANTA    BARBARA 

seen  in  the  fact  that  they  were  taken  from  a  mound  burial 
which  per  se  might  be  considered  as  a  sign  of  relatively 
old  age.  This,  however,  would  hardly  justify  assign- 
ing to  them  an  age  older  than  our  Christian  era.  Simi- 
lar comments  were  advanced  by  A.  L.  Kroeber,  Clark 
Wissler,  and  W.  K.  Gregory.  There  is  thus  a  possibility 
of  linking  our  finds  with  an  ancestral  strain  in  the 
sense  of  American  Indian  ethnogeny,  which  in  turn 
would  suggest  an  affinity  with  the  early  intruders  into 
the  locality  where  their  remains  were  found,  and  perhaps 
even  with  those  already  on  American  soil.  However, 
such  speculation  is  lacking  in  proof. 

Summarizing  as  a  result  of  our  methodical  investiga- 
tion, it  must  be  stated  that  the  designation  of  the  Santa 
Barbara  finds  as  a  special  variety  of  Homo  primigenius 
(in  Schwalbe's  sense)  and  under  the  caption  of  Homo 
barbarensis  or  the  like,  is  unjustifiable;  nor  do  they 
present  an  assemblage  of  such  morphological  features  as 
to  warrant  their  recognition  as  a  special  racial  unit  within 
the  ethnic  complex  of  which  they  form  a  part.  The 
Santa  Barbara  crania,  in  spite  of  their  slight  primitive- 
ness,  are  truly  Indian  of  recent  morphological  appearance 
and  are  related  to  the  types  of  their  specific  habitat. 

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INDEX 

Age  of  specimens,  12 
Angle,  coronal,  24 

inferior  lateral,  of  orbit,  98 

foramen  magnum,  in  deformed  skulls,  62 

of  frontal  curvature,  50 

nuchal,  59,  60,  121 

See  Tables  of  measurements 
Antiquity  of  finds,  9,  154 

problems  of,  15 
Antrum  maxillare,  77 
Apertura  piriformis,  104,  106,  107,  152 

clivus  naso-alveolaris,  104,  107 

crista  alveolaris  media,  106 

fossa  praenasalis,  105,  107 

incisura  nasalis,  104 

margo  nasoalveolaris,  104,  106 

margo  nasospinalis,  104,  106 

naso-alveolar  flexion,  104,  108 

notches,  inferior,  106 

spina  nasalis  anterior,  106 
Arcus  superciliaris,  82,  152 

zygomaticus,  37,  41,  151 
Asterion  region,  33 

Burton  Mound,  9 

Canalis,  Canales 
condyloideus,  71 
hypoglossi,  72,  73 
absence,  72 
bipartition,  72 

159 


160  INDEX 

musculotubarius,  76 
Chin 

median  (round),  127 

lateral  (squarish),  127 

protrusion,  33,  126,  127,  151 
Circummuscular  zone,  121 
Classification  of  bones,  12-14 
Condyliis  occipitalis,  71 

Correlations,  intracranial  and  cranio-facial,  18-21 
Cranial  outline  in  norma  verticalis,  21,  22 

in  norma  occipitalis,  32,  59,  121-122 
Cranio-facial  correlations,  18-21 
Crista  infratemporalis,  39,  40 

supramastoidea,  34,  35,  36 

temporalis,  33,  34 

Deformation,  absence  of  cranial,  11-12 

unintentional,  11-12,  14,  22,  32 
Dental  arch,  79,  151,  152 

Evaluation  of  morphological  characters,  151,  152 

Face,  111,  120,  150 

horizontal  profilation  of,  115,  116 

protrusion,  33,  117,  118 
Fontanelle,  occipital,  21 
Foramen,  Foramina 

incisivum,  78 

infraorbitale,  109,  110 

jugulare,  73 

magnum  plane 

in  artificially  deformed  skulls,  62 
phylogenetic  significance,  62,  151,  152 


INDEX  161 


magnum  shape,  70 
mastoideum,  122 
mentale,  128 
nasale,  102 
ovale,  75,  76 
palatina  majora,  77,  78 
palatina  minora,  78 
parietale,  26 
spinosum,  75,  76 
supraorbitale,  83 
Fossa  canina,  107,  108,  150 
condyloidea,  71,  72 
mandibularis,  74 
pharyngea,  5 
pterygoidea,  76 
:  upramastoidea,  34 
temporalis,  37-41,  151 

Geology  of  Burton  Mound,  15. i 
Glabella,  51 
Gregory,  W.  K.,  154 

Harrington,  J .  P.,  9 
"High-cheek,"  115 
Hill,  Dr.  Robert  T.,  153 
Hodge,  F.  W.,  9 

Incisura  frontalis,  83 

mastoidea,  34,  74 

supraorbitalis,  83 
Index,  Indices.     See  Tables  of  measurements 
Infranasion,  86 

Infraporial  extension,  44,  45,  64 
Inter  orbital  width,  anterior,  87,  88 


162  INDEX 

Intracranial  correlations,  18,  12 
Investigation,  plan  of,  15 

Kroeber,  A.  L.,  154 

Linece  temporaries,  33 
Lower  jaw 

alveolar  plane,  126,  132,  139,  141,  142 

anguli  mandibular,  132 

"antero-basal"  angle,  142 

basal  border,  125 

canalis  medianus  (Bertelli),  129 

chin  (negative,  neutral,  positive),  126 

corrective  vertical,  126 

tangent,  126 

vertical,  126 
condylo-coronoid  dilation,  128,  140 

height  proportion,  140 
crista  endocondyloidea,  128 

endocoronoidea,  128 
foramen  mandibulare,  132 

mentale,  128 
fossa  digastrica,  129 

mentalis,  125 

"postcoronoidea,"  129 

praecoronoidea,  129,  132 

subcoronoidea,  129 
fovea  sublingualis,  132 

submaxillaris,  132 
height  of  ramus  (sigmoid  and  condylo-coronoid),  137 
horizontal  tracing,  127 

incision  (s.  infradentale  s.  katoprosthion) ,  126 
incisura  mandibular  (sigmoidea),  128,  137,  140 

praemasseterica  (s.  praemuscularis  s.  pra?angularis) ,  125 


INDEX  163 

subincisiva  (s.  incurvatio  mandibular  anterior),  125 

submentalis  (Klaatsch),  137 
linea  mylohyoidea,  129 

obliqua,  124 
median-sagittal  tracing,  127 
nervus  lingualis  (sulcus),  137 
planum  platysmaticum,  125 
pogonion,  126 
postero-basal  angle,  141 
processus  alveolaris  and  ramus  (mutual  behavior),  131,  132 

condyloideus,  130,  140 

coronoideus,  131,  140 
spina,  spinae,  genioglossal,  129 

interdigastrica,  129 

mentalis  interna,  129 
striae  platysmaticas,  125 
sulcus  mentalis,  125 

mylohyoideus,  132 
thickness  of  corpus  (postmolar),  129 
trigonum  mentale,  125 

postcoronoideum,  129 

postmolare,  129 
tubercula  mentalia  (s.  platysmatica),  125 

Manifestation  of  occipital  vertebra  (Kollmann),  72 
Margo  supraorbital  (lateral  extension),  82 
Maxillofrontale,  87 

Median-sagittal  arc,  divisions  of,  46,  47 
Method  and  plan  of  investigation,  15 
Morphological  position  of  Santa  Barbara  man,  152 
Muscle  marks,  33,  124,  151 

Museum  of  the  American  Indian,  Heye  Foundation  (Depart- 
ment of  Physical  Anthropology),  9,  11 


164  INDEX 

Narrowing  of  face,  108 
Nasal  roof  and  prognathy,  101 

concaveness  of,  99,  100 
Nasion,  depression  of,  32 
Naso-alveolar  flexion,  104 
Naso-zygomatic  deviation,  118,  120 
Norma  basilaris,  69-82 

frontalis  (facialis),  82-120 

lateralis,  31-69 

occipitalis,  121-124 

verticalis,  21-31 
Nose,  98-107,  150 
Nuchal  angle,  59-62,  121 
correlations  with,  59-63 

Orbita,  88-98,  150,  151 
Os,  Ossa 

frontale,  82-91 

curvature,  48,  50,  149,  151 

declination,  48-49,  149,  151 

outlines,  53,  151 

pars  (processus)  nasalis,  85-90,  150 

processus  zygomaticus,  30,  84,  85 
maxillare,  107-111 

corpus  maxillare,  110,  111 

crista  infrazygomatica,  108-109 

facial  configuration,  111 

fossa  canina,  108,  109 

processus  alveolaris,  107 
nasale,  98-107 

horizontal  outline,  99 

"Sanduhr"-shape,  102 

vertical  outline,  33,  99,  100,  151 
occipitale,  58-65 


INDEX  165 

interparietal  apex,  121 

median-sagittal  outline,  32 

pars  basilaris,  64-65,  75 

planum  nuchale,  59,  62,  122 

posterior  extension,  69 

protuberantia  occipitalis  externa,  59,  122 

relief,  32 

torus  occipitalis,  122 

vaulting,  59,  60,  69,  121 
tympanicum,  32 

porus  acusticus  externus,  32 

thickening,  32,  74 
zygomaticum,  113-120 

crista  infrazygomatica,  108 

horizontal  outline,  115-118,  120 

naso-zygomatic  deviation,  118,  120 

processus  frontosphenoidalis,  42,  43,  151 
maxillaris,  107,  115 
temporalis,  37 

Palate,  anomalous  perforation  of,  77,  78 

Palato-alveolar  complex,  76-82 

Phcenozygy,  31,  149 

Plagiocrany,  12,  14,  22,  32,  121 

Post-auricular  cranial  extension,  32,  151 

Post-brcgmatic  elevation,  32,  56,  57,  151 

Post-orbital  constriction,  22,  29-32,  40,  43,  84,  149,  151 

Preservation,  state  of,  11-12 

Processus  condyloideus,  74 

frontalis,  42 

frontosphenoidalis,  42,  43,  151 

jugularis,  74 

marginalis,  42 

mastoideus,  32,  34,  70,  74,  151 


166  INDEX 

pterygoideus,  76 
styloideus  (vagina),  74 
zygomaticus 

frontal  bone,  30,  42,  83,  84,  149 
maxillary  bone,  107 
temporal  bone,  37,  74 
Prodenty,  33 

Profilation  of  face,  115-117 
Prognathism,  65-69,  150 
Prosopometer,  95 

Refinement  of  facial  parts,  108 

Septum  inter  orbit  ale,  89 

Size  of  skulls,  15-18,  148 

Skeletal  remains,  classification  of,  11,  12 

Spina  nasalis  anterior,  104,  106,  107 

posterior,  76 
Spina  palatince,  76 
Squama  temporalis,  34-37 

forward  extension,  37 

lateral  bulging,  37 

processus  zygomaticus,  37 

shape,  34 
Stenocrotaphy,  42 
Sulcus  arterise  occipitalis,  74 

sphenoparietal,  37 
Siitura,  Suturaz 

complication,  24 

coronalis,  22 

divisions,  22-24 

incisiva,  78 

infraorbitalis,  109,  110 

internasalis,  99 


INDEX  167 


lambdoidea,  24 
nasofrontalis,  98 
obliteration,  24 
palatina  mediana,  78 

transversa,  78 
sagittalis,  23 
sphenoidalis,  37,  42 
squamosa,  37 

Tables  of  measurements ,  angles  and  indices 
Cranial  size,  15 

Intra-cranial  and  cranio-facial  correlations,  18 
Cranial  measurements,  31 
Fossa  temporalis,  41 
Cranial  height  measurements,  46 
Medium-sagittal  arc,  48 
Os  frontale,  54-55 
Os  parietale,  58 
Nuchal  angle,  60 
Os  occipitale,  61 
Cranial  base  (angles),  65 
Vertical  profilation,  67 
Foramen  magnum,  71 
Maxillo-alveolar  and  palatal,  81 
Fronto-biorbital  index,  85 
Processus  nasalis  ossis  frontalis,  89 
Processus  nasalis  and  orbita,  90 
Orbita,  92 

declination  of,  97 
nasal  measurements,  105 
corpus  maxillare,  110 
facial  measurements,  112 
os  zygomaticum,  119 
cranial  breadth  and  height,  123 


168  INDEX 

capitulum  mandibulae,  131 

mandible,  134 

ramus  mandibulae,  138 

mandibular  angles,  142 
Tassonomic  method,  21 
Technique,  15 
Teeth,  146-147 

completeness,  146 

occlusion,  33,  146 

pathology,  147 

"shovel-shape,"  147,  151 

size,  146,  152 

wear,  146 
Torus  palatinus,  76 

occipitalis,  122 
Tuber  frontale,  82 

parietale,  33 
Tuberculum  articulare,  37,  74 

jugulare,  72 

(fossa)  pharyngea,  75 

spinosum,  40 
Type,  difference  of  cranial,  in  southern  California,  148 

Wissler,  Clark,  154 

Zonula  circummuscularh ,  33,  121 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL     VI 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL,  XVI 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL,  XVIII 


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OETTEKING— SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


NORMA  LATERALIS  OFSKULLC( 
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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


NORMA  LATERALIS  OF  SKULL  E  (cf) 
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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL.  XXI 


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OETTEKING— SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL,  XXII 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL,  XXMI 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL.  XXV 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


NORMA  BASILARIS  OF  SKULL  E  (cf) 

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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL,  XXVII 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL.  XXVIII 


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OETTEKING — SANTA  BARBARA  CRANIOLOGY 


PL.  XXIX 


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